1. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved This multimedia product and its content are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network. Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images. Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

2.  Cognition  Language  Intelligence  Explaining Differences in Intelligence  Beyond Intelligence Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

3.  Cognition refers collectively to the processes of acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information (Matlin,1989)  I magery representation in the mind of a sensory experience: visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory, or tactile  Images are helpful in learning or maintaining motor skills.  The same brain areas are activated whether one is performing or mentally rehearsing a task. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

4.  Concepts mental categories used to represent a class or group of objects, people, events, etc. help organize thinking assist ability to think and communicate with speed and efficiency Prototypes embody the most typical features of concepts. Exemplars are personal, individual instances stored in memory.  Two Types of Concepts formal concept  clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification system natural concept  acquired through everyday perceptions and experiences Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

5.  Decision Making process of considering alternatives and choosing among them bounded rationality  Boundaries or limitations around the decision-making process prevent it from being entirely logical.  We often base decisions on strategies and educated guesses. elimination by aspects  Alternatives are evaluated against criteria that have been ranked according to importance. heuristic  rule of thumb derived from experience  used in decision making and problem solving  no guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

6.  Availability Heuristic An event’s probability corresponds to the ease with which the event comes to mind.  example: overestimating the probability of rare events, such as winning the lottery  Representativeness Heuristic strategy based on how closely a new situation resembles a familiar one  example: choosing a fast-food restaurant  Recognition Heuristic The decision-making process stops as soon as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognized.  example: influences voting behavior, such as recognizing a candidate’s name Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

7.  Framing Information is presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential loss as outcome.  Intuition rapidly formed judgments based on “gut feelings” or “instincts”  can interfere with logical thinking  Anchoring overestimation of the importance of a factor; focusing on it to the exclusion of other relevant factors Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

8.  Thoughts and actions required to achieve a goal not readily attainable analogy heuristic  comparing a problem to others encountered in the past  working backward  starting with the desired goal and working backwards to the current condition  means-end analysis  The current position is compared with the desired goal.  A series of steps is formulated to close the gap between the goal and the current position. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

9.  Algorithm step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem  e.g., mathematical formula  Functional Fixedness failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems  tendency to view objects only in terms of their customary functions  Mental Set tendency to apply a familiar strategy to a problem without considering the requirements of a particular problem  Confirmation Bias selective attention to information that confirms preexisting beliefs Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

10.  Programming computer systems to simulate human thinking in solving problems, making judgments, and coming to decisions  Artificial Neural Networks computer systems intended to mimic the human brain  expert systems  computer programs designed to carry out specific functions within a limited domain  offer greatest use functioning as assistants to humans Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

11.  Communicating Thoughts and Feelings using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written symbols) arranged according to rules of grammar Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

12.  Psycholinguistics study of how language is acquired, produced, and used how sounds and symbols of language are translated into meaning  Five Components of Language  phonemes  smallest units of sound in a spoken language  morphemes  smallest units of meaning in a spoken language Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

13.  Five Components of Language (continued ) semantics  meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences pragmatics  patterns of intonation and social roles associated with language syntax  rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and sentences Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

14.  All animal languages lack one or more key components of human language. Duality of patterning Productivity Arbitrariness Interchangeability Specialization Displacement Cultural transmission Prevarication Reflexiveness Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

15.  Chimpanzees have been taught to communicate using sign language or symbols Kanzi: case of chimpanzee with advanced understanding of spoken language  Most animal species studied are limited to motor responses for communication.  However, some bird species such as parrots are capable of making humanlike speech sounds. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

17.  Sea mammals use complicated systems of grunts, whistles, clicks, and other sounds to communicate within their species.  Animal language is not just imitation or behavior shaped by conditioning. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

18.  Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis The language a person speaks determines the nature of that person’s thoughts.  Benjamin Whorf (1956)  The language used by Inuit people has multiple words for snow.  Their vocabulary enables the Inuit to think differently about snow than others can.  Eleanor Rosch (1973)  found no difference in color discrimination between people whose language has many names for colors and those who have few words for colors  Her work disputes the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

19.  Advantage better executive control skills  ability to suppress impulsive responses to verbal tasks and think more carefully about them  Disadvantage decreased efficiency in memory tasks involving words  Most bilinguals develop compensatory strategies for word memory tasks.  may respond more slowly, but are as accurate as monolinguals Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

20.  Learning a second language at an earlier age generally results in a higher level of proficiency. more likely to speak with an appropriate accent There is no age at which learning a second language is impossible. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

21.  Study of Immigrants to USA  The ability to learn English is associated with educational background.  College-educated adults can attain a high level of proficiency. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

22.  Intelligence is an individual’s ability to:  Understand complex ideas  Adapt effectively to the environment  Learn from experience  Engage in various forms of reasoning  Overcome obstacles through mental effort Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

23.  Charles Spearman Individuals bright in one area tend to be bright in other areas as well. Intelligence is composed of a general ability: g.  G underlies all intellectual functions. influence can be seen in IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binet Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

24.  Louis Thurstone rejected Spearman’s notion of g proposed 7 primary mental abilities  Verbal comprehension  Numerical ability  Spatial relations  Perceptual speed  Word fluency  Memory  Reasoning Thurstone felt that a profile of 7 primary abilities revealed more about ability than a single IQ score. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

25.  Howard Gardner eight independent forms of intelligence viewed all forms of intelligence as equally important evaluated how intelligence is valued and perceived in other cultures Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

26.  Robert Sternberg triarchic theory of intelligence different types of knowledge: formal academic knowledge, or the knowledge we acquire in school, and tacit knowledge (more action-oriented) His ideas are popular with educators. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

27.  Achievement Tests tap into knowledge and skills acquired through experiences such as formal education  norm referenced: compare to other students of same grade  criterion referenced: compare against an established standard  Aptitude Tests predict probable performance in a particular setting or on a specific task  Intelligence Tests measure general intellectual ability Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

28.  Reliability ability of a test to yield consistent results  Validity ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure  Standardization establishing norms for comparing the scores of people who will take the test in the future  norms: age-based averages administering tests using a prescribed procedure Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

29.  Culture-Fair Intelligence Test designed to minimize cultural bias Questions do not penalize individuals whose cultural experience or language differs from that of the mainstream or dominant culture. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

30.  Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed the first intelligence test assessed intellectual potential of schoolchildren Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale  mental age  based on number of items a child got right compared with average number right by children of various ages  Louis Terman revised the Binet-Simon test Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale made use of William Stern’s concept of intelligence quotient developed formula for calculating IQ  mental age / chronological age = IQ Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

31.  David Wechsler developed the first individual intelligence test for individuals over age 16  Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Also developed a widely used test for children  Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)  consists of 5 verbal and 10 nonverbal subtests Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

32.  Normal Curve bell-shaped distribution majority of the scores cluster around the mean (average) average IQ score arbitrarily assigned the score of 100 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

33.  Studied 1528 people with IQs from 135 to 200  Compared to the general population, high-IQ individuals: Have better mental health Earn more academic degrees Achieve higher occupational status and higher income Are better-adjusted personally and socially Are healthier Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

34.  Subnormal intelligence reflected by: IQ below 70 Severely deficient adaptive functioning  Causes brain injury chromosomal abnormalities chemical deficiencies hazards present during prenatal development  Degrees of Retardation Mild: IQ 55–70 Moderate: IQ 40–54 Severe: IQ 25–39 Profound: IQ < 25 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

35.  Are intelligence and other traits the result of heredity or environment?  Heritability Index the degree to which a characteristic is estimated to be influenced by heredity  Minnesota Twins Study Identical twins obtain similar scores on IQ tests, even when raised apart. Individual differences in intelligence are strongly influenced by genes. Other researchers feel that the Minnesota group overemphasizes heredity. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

37.  Scarr and Weinberg (1976) An enriched environment can modify IQ. One hundred and forty African-American and interracial children fully exposed to middle-class cultural experiences and vocabulary average IQ 106, above the national average The earlier the child was adopted, the higher the child’s IQ. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

38.  Craig Ramey Infant Intervention infants of low-IQ, low-income mothers Children in the program scored significantly higher in IQ through age 12. Recent studies indicate that gains have persisted into adulthood.

39.  Historically, blacks score about 15 points lower than whites on IQ tests in USA.  Jensen (1969) attributed the IQ gap to genetic differences.  Ramey and others suggest that differences result from poverty and a lack of educational opportunities.  Minority children are more likely to be identified as gifted with culture-fair intelligence tests.  Racial differences in IQ scores may also be explained by stereotype threat. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

41.  Ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday life, including: Awareness of one’s emotions Ability to manage emotions Self-motivation, empathy Ability to handle relationships  Peter Salovey and David Pizarro argue that emotional intelligence is just as important as the kind of intelligence measured in IQ tests Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

42.  Ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems weak to moderate correlation between creativity and IQ  Four Stages in the Creative Process 1. Preparation: 1. Preparation: searching for information that may solve problem 2. Incubation: the 2. Incubation: the problem “sits” while the relevant information is digested 3. Illumination 3. Illumination: suddenly struck by the right solution 4. Translation 4. Translation: tr ansforming the insight into useful action Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

43.  Divergent Thinking ability to produce multiple ideas or solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution  Convergent Thinking measured by IQ and achievement tests consists of solving precisely defined, logical problems known correct answer Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

44.  Convergent thinking is characterized by greater activity in the left frontal cortex.  Divergent thinking is marked by higher levels of activity in the right frontal cortex. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

45.  Characteristics of Creative Individuals Expertise built over years of study and practice Openness to new experiences and ideas Inherent curiosity Independent thinking Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved