1. Teori-teori Pembangunan Sumber Manusia

2. Grid Penguruan Blake dan Mouton
Sistem Likert
Teori Z Ouchi
Teori Argyris

3. Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton
Teori ini diperkenalkan pada 1964 bertujuan menerangkan huraian gaya kepimpinan pengurus untuk tujuan meningkatkan kecekapan dan keberkesanan organisasi.
Pengurus yang efisyen:
Tumpu kepada pekerja (Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan)
Tumpu kepada produktiviti (Teori Pengurusan Klasikal dan Saintifik)

4. Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton
Grid kepimpinan utk menerangkan gaya kepimpinan. LIMA jenis gaya pengurusan:
Pengurusan Lemah (Impoverished Management)
Pengurusan Kelab Riadah (Country Club Management)
Authority-Compliance
Pengurusan Pasukan (Team Management)
Pengurusan Pertengahan (Mid-of-the-Road Management)

5. The New Managerial Grid
Insert Figure 2.2

6. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
Authority Compliance (9,1)
Classical theory
Country Club (1,9)
Informal grapevine
Impoverished (1,1)
Laissez-faire
Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
Compromise (carrot & stick)
Team (9,9)
Human Resources Approach
Promote the conditions that integrate creativity, high productivity, and high morale through concerted team action

7. Likert’s System of Management
Exploitive Autocratic
Benevolent Autocratic
Consultative
Participative Team

8. Perbezaan keempat-empat sistem ada dari aspek motivasi, komunikasi, pembuatan keputusan, penyediaan maklumat, kawalan, struktur pengaruh dan persepsi.
Kajian Likert mendapati kebanyakan organisasi mengamalkan sistem 4 ( Pembabitan Organisasi/ Participative Team)
Ciri-ciri sistem 4:
Terdapat hubungan saling membantu ketua dan pekerja bawahan.
Proses pembuatan keputusan adalah secara kolektif.
Ahli organisasi juga merupakan ahli unit dalam organisasi.
Organisasi mempunyai matlamat pencapaian tinggi.

9. Teori Z Ouchi
Teori alternatif kepada Teori X dan Y dan teori ini adalah berdasarkan corak pengurusan Jepun.
Teori Z lebih mengutamakan pembentukan dan penyuburan sumber manusia dalam organisasi.
Teori Argyris
Menekankan peranan individu dalam organisasi. Menyokong komunikasi terbuka dalam organisasi dan penglibatan dlm membuat keputusan.

10. Implikasi Teori-teori Sumber Manusia terhadap Komunikasi
Kandungan Komunikasi
Berkaitan tugas, sosial dan inovasi
Arah Komunikasi
Pelbagai arah dan antara kumpulan
Saluran Komunikasi
Semua saluran
Gaya komunikasi
Formal dan tidak formal

11. Kesimpulan
Pendekatan Sumber Manusia dalam pengurusan adalah kesan kelemahan Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan.
Prinsip-prinsip Sumber Manusia dapat dibentuk dalam organisasi menerusi partisipasi, proses pembuatan keputusan, daya inovasi. Ini jelas menerusi teori Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton, Sistem Likert 4, Teori Z Ouchi dan Teori Argyris.
Terdapat sifat kepelbagaian dalam komunikasi dalam organisasi sumber manusia.

12. Teori Sistem
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy
Merujuk kepada organisasi sebagai mempunyai TIGA komponen:
Susunan Hierarki (Hierarchical Ordering)
Pembentukan organisasi menyerupai satu sistem yang kompleks seperti sistem biologi tubuh manusia. Di dalam sistem tersebut terdapat sub-sistem yang membantu proses pengorganisasian.
Saling Bergantung dan Memerlukan (Interdependence)
Satu sistem yang besar memerlukan sub-sistem yang kecil untuk beroperasi.
Keterbukaan (Permeability)
Organisasidiandaikan sebagai organism hidup yang memerlukan elemen luar untuk beroperasi. Elemen keterbukaan menyebabkan organisasi menerima inovasi luar.

13. Proses Sistem
Sistem diterjemahkan menerusi proses input-throughput-output.
“inputs” adalah bahan atau maklumat persekitaran luar yang masuk ke dalam organisasi menerusi elemen keterbukaan.
Menerusi proses transformasi aktiviti “throughput” berlaku dan menghasilkan “output”.

14. Sistem mentransformasikan output kepada environment luar e.g.
Kilang Perabut  perabut  public
Bahan mentah “input”
“throughput”
“output”

15. Ciri-ciri Sistem
Holistik -- Sistem diterangkan sebagai menyeluruh/ besar. Sesuatu sistem itu bersifat holistik kerana setiap anggota sistem bergantung antara satu dengan yang lain. Organisasi juga akan kukuh apabila terdapat amalan berkerja bersama.
Equifinality Untuk mencapai sesuatu matlamat itu banyak cara yang boleh dilakukan. Pelbagai cara tersebut akan dilakukan untuk tujuan pencapaian metlamat organisasi.

16. Entropi Negatif -- Kecenderungan sistem yang mengamalkan dasar tertutup untuk mengalami kemusnahan. Sistem yang mengamalkan dasar terbuka mampu menghalang kemusnahan.
Kepelbagaian Keperluan -- Kepelbagaian kaedah untuk mengawal pelbagai cabaran yang mungkin muncul daripada persekitaran sistem.

17. Teori Sistem Sibernetiks -- dikembangkan oleh Norbert Wiener 1948 – Fokus kepada penerangan bagaimana satu sistem berupaya mencapai keseimbangan atau homeostasis kerana kewujudan pelbagai komponen yang saling berkait. Sistem Sibernertiks mementingkan tindak balas dalam memastikan keupayaan untuk berfungsi.

18. Teori Maklumat -- Teori yang menekankan kepentingan maklumat dalam organisasi. Pertukaran maklumat merupakan keperluan kepada organisasi.

19. Teori Budaya Organisasi
Fokus terhadap apakah itu organisasi? Apakah yang dipunyai oleh organisasi.
Empat komponen budaya kukuh:
Nilai
Wira (Heroes)
Upacara dan Amalan (Rituals)
Jaringan Budaya

20. Budaya Organisasi adalah kompleks
Budaya organisasi diterjemahkan menerusi upacara, peraturan komunikasi, “cerita”, kepercayaan, simbol.
Kemunculan Budaya Organisasi adalah hasil interaksi ahli dalam organisasi. Walau bagaimanapun tidak wujud satu Budaya Organisasi yang unggul.

21. Budaya organisasi mempunyai kesan terhadap bentuk dan struktur organisasi. Menerusi kajian berbentuk deskriptif pengkaji akan dapat memahami budaya organisasi dan mengenali organisasi tersebut.
Budaya penting terhadap mengarahkan kejayaan organisasi.

23. Apakah dengan melihat bangunan tersebut anda dapat memahami budaya organisasi tersebut?

24. Motivation and Hygiene Factors
Frederick Herzberg
(1923 – 2000)

28. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.
Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.
Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security.
Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

29. Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
Herzberg:
Job context is source of dissatisfaction
Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay, working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of problems means lack of dissatisfaction
Job content is the source of job satisfaction
Motivator factors (e.g., achievement, responsibility) link with job performance; if high, satisfaction high and performance strong

30. Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using different methods
Still does not explain individual differences, professional or cultural differences

31. Motivators and Hygiene Factors
Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely separate dimensions contribute to an employee’s behavior at work—hygiene factors and motivators.
Hygiene factors are elements such as working conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships
Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

32. Motivators and Hygiene Factors
Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things which encourage them to attend work, comply to group or team goals, and produce.
 They often are linked to performance. Positive recognition by a superior and among peers during a formal meeting is an example of this.

33. Motivators and Hygiene Factors
Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless of performance.
 Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor.
 The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates become dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors are not taking care of them.
Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene factors) lie on completely different scales and must be considered independently.

34. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
KITA versus “true” motivation
Short-term movement versus long-term motivation
Job enrichment is an attempt to instill an internal generator in the employee
Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included employees working in a variety of industries and jobs
Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers, and others

35. Hygiene Factors Work environment & target basic needs
Range from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction
The presence of hygiene cannot lead to satisfaction or high levels of motivation
Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

36. Hygiene Factors (cont)
Salary
Can it ever be enough?
Benefits
Health care costs, premium sharing
Company policy & administration
Work conditions
Office space, equipment, etc.

37. Motivator Factors Motivators Tap needs for psychological growth
Job content: The work itself
Lead to high levels of employee motivation and satisfaction

38. Motivator Factors (cont)
Examples
Recognition
Responsibility
Achievement
Growth and learning

39. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
(lower order needs)
Motivator Factors
(higher order needs)
Salary
Company policies
Working conditions
Benefits
Job security
Career Advancement
Personal growth
Recognition
Responsibility
Achievement
Frederick Herzberg asked workers to describe situations in which they felt either good or bad about their jobs. His findings are called motivation-hygiene theory. Herzberg asserted that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction whereas extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. So, he called company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; however, they will not be satisfied either. He believed that achievement, recognition, the work itself, growth, and responsibility are motivational because people find them intrinsically rewarding.
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Job Satisfaction
High
Prentice Hall, 2001
Chapter 6

40. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
maintenance factor
contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
job enrichment
leads to superior performance & effort 9 11

41. Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Salary?
Motivation factors increase job satisfaction
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Company policy & administration
Supervision
Interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Salary
Status
Security
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission. 10 13

42. Motivation-Hygiene Combinations
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H) 14

43. Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively individuals feel about their jobs
Observable informally through observation and interpretation of behaviour and words
Measured formally in questionnaires
E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
E.g., Job Descriptive Index

44. Effects of Job Satisfaction
Link to absenteeism
Satisfied have lower absenteeism
Link to turnover
Dissatisfied more likely to quit
Link to performance complex
Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual performance
Successful performance does seem to lead to greater satisfaction
Proper allocation of rewards can increase both performance and satisfaction

45. Summary
Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are working conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships
Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level needs and include recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

46. Organizational Information Theory
Managing large amounts of information is one of the leading challenges for organizations. As new means of communication increase, the amount of messages we send and receive, and the speed of those messages increase.
"Karl Weick developed an approach to describe the process by which organizations collect, manage, and use the information that they recieve" (West and Turner, p. 243).

47. Organizational Information Theory
In developing his approach, Weick focuses on the process rather than the structure. Here, his focus was on the exchange of information that takes place within organizations and how individuals within the oganization take steps to understand the material.
"The focus of Organizational Information Theory is on the communication of information that is vital in determining the success of an organization" (West and Turner, p. 244).

48. Karl E. Weick is the Rensis Likert Collegiate Professor of Organizational Behavior and Psychology Professor of Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan. His PhD is from Ohio State University in Social and Organizational Psychology.

49. Dr. Weick's Book The Social Psychology of Organizing, first published in 1969 and revised in 1979, was declared one of the nine best business books ever written by Inc Magazine in December of 1996.
The organizing formulation has more recently been expanded into a book titled Sensemaking in Organizations.

50. Dr. Weick's research interests include collective sensemaking under pressure, medical errors, hand-offs in extreme events, high reliability performance, improvisation, and continuous change.
Dr. Weicks graduate level teaching focuses on the social psychology of organizing, micro foundations of organization studies, the craft of scholarship, and his executive education teaching focuses on the management of uncertainty through sensemaking and improvisation.

51. Example Application -
Do you remember the Y2K scare? Companies and people world-wide who depended on computers were in a state of panic when they learned that their computers might not be compatible in the new millenium. NowBank was one of these companies. An associate named Dominique Martin was to head up operations for a Y2K conversion.
However, the company had branches in Denver, Dallas, and also Phoenix. By way of videoconferencing, all teams would meet to discuss each branch's responsibilities. Upon meeting, many different areas of management began to arise.
Areas such as providing updates, maintaining communication between all branches, and keeping their own division running made the operation stressful. As concerns began to escalate, Dominique realized that effective communication would be key to the success of the project.
To manage all of the concerns, problems, and communication issues the team implemented aspects of Organizational Information Theory. With communication as the highest priority, NowBank was successful in their conversion. The company continues to run smooth.

52. Influences on O.I.T. -
In Weick's first book The Social Psychology of Organizing, he presents "his theoretical approach explaining how organizations make sense of and use information".
Weick states, "Organizations and their environments change so rapidly that it is unrealistic to show what they are like now, because that's not the way they are going to be later".
However, Weick realized that complete knowledge could not come from one source. There must be other influences on communication and also relationships among individuals. Two other theories were explored.

53. General System Theory
General System Theory in developing his approach to examine how organizations manage their information. In order to make neccessary adjustments to reach a common goal, an organization must depend on combined information.
Bertalanffy notes, "While in the past, science tried to explain observable phenomena by reducing them to an interplay of elementary units investigatable independantly of each other, conceptions appear in contemporary science that are concerned with what is somewhat vaguely termed "wholeness," i.e., problems of organizations. General System Theory, therefore, is the general science of "wholeness" (Bertalanffy, pp ).

54. Ludwig von Bertalanffy's

55. General Assumptions -
One way to explain the way in which organizations make sense out of information that may be ambiguous or confusing is Organizational Information Theory. This theory focuses "on the process of organizing members of an organization to manage information rather than on the structure of the organization itself". There are assumptions beneath Weick's Organizational Information Theory:
Human Organizations engage in information processing to reduce equivocality of information
The information an organization receives differs in terms of equivocality
Human organizations exist in an information environment

56. General Concepts -
Organizational Information Theory does include a significant number of concepts that are crucial to fully understand this theory.
They are: information environment, information equivocality, and cycles of communication. Here is a brief explanation of each one:

57. Information Environment -
"Information environment is a core concept in understanding how organizations are formed as well as how they process information. Everyday, we are faced with thousands of stimuli that we could potentially process and interpret. The availability of all stimuli is considered to be the information environment.

58. Information Equivocality -
"Organizations receive information from multiple sources; They must decode the information and determine whether it is comprehensible, which person or department is most qualified to deal with the information, and whether multiple departments require this information to accomplish their tasks. Without clarity in these areas, there is information equivocality"

59. Cycles of Communication -
There are three steps to the cycle of communication. The three steps consist of act, response, and adjustment.
The act "refers to the communication behaviors used to indicate one's ambiguity as a result of information that is received. The reaction to the act indicating equivocality of information defines the concept of response.
A response of clarifying information is provided as a result of the act. As a result of the response, the organization formulates a response in return as a result of any adjustment that has been made to the information that was originally received.
An adjustment is made to indicate that the information is now understood"

60. Critique –
Organizational Information Theory plays a very prevalent role in organizational communication.
Communication is critical to our personal lives, our social lives, and also our professional lives.
This theory has no limitations within organizational communication. It addresses aspects of the individual and also the group within the organization. Organizational Information Theory is a valuable theory to study and also practice.

61. Theory X/Y Douglas MacGregor, 1960
Interaction between supervisors and subordinates
Organization’s management approach is determined by supervisors’ attitudes and belief about subordinates
Beginning of human relations movement

62. Theory X Role of Management Human Nature
Management responsible for organizing elements of productive enterprise
People need to be controlled and directed
People would be passive otherwise
Human Nature
man works as little as possible
lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led
inherently self-centered
naturally resistant to change
gullible, not very bright

63. Theory Y Role of Management Human Nature
Management responsible for organizing elements of productive enterprise
Task of management is to arrange organizational conditions so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives
Human Nature
People are not naturally passive, they have become so as a result of experience in organizations
Motivation and capacity for assuming responsibility is inherent in people

64. Theory X Theory Y Managers See Workers As…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Having Little Ambition
Theory Y
Managers See Workers As…
Enjoying Work
Accepting Responsibility
Self-Directed
Douglas McGregor said that managers hold one of two sets of assumptions about human nature: either Theory X or Theory Y. Seeing people as irresponsible and lazy, managers who follow Theory X assume the following:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened to achieve goals.
3. Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction, if possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other work-related factors and will display little ambition.
Since they see people as responsible and conscientious, managers who follow Theory Y assume the following:
1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. When committed to their objectives, people will exercise self-direction and self-control
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. Many workers besides managers have innovative decision-making skills.
No hard evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is universally true. It is more likely that the assumptions of Theory X or Theory Y may or may not be appropriate, depending on the situation at hand.
Prentice Hall, 2001

65. Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

66. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Management view that assumes workers generally dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs
Theory Y
Management view that assumes workers like to work and under proper conditions, employees will seek responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and self-actualization needs

67. Theory Z
A management philosophy that stresses employee participation in all aspects of company decision making

68. Comparison of American, Japanese, and Theory Z Management Styles

69. Variations on Theory Z Quality circles Participative management
Employee involvement
Self-directed work teams
Did You Know?
Theory Z lets employees feel organizational
ownership, which may produce positive attitudinal
and behavioral effects for employees.

70. *
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Maslow’s Theory
“We each have a hierarchy of needs that ranges from "lower" to "higher." As lower needs are fulfilled there is a tendency for other, higher needs to emerge.”
Daniels, 2004 *

71. *
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Maslow’s Theory
Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until the needs of the current level have been satisfied. Maslow's basic needs are as follows: *

72. Basic Human Needs Physiological Needs Food Air Water Clothing Sex *
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Basic Human Needs
Food
Air
Water
Clothing
Sex
Physiological Needs *

73. Safety Needs Protection Stability Pain Avoidance Routine/Order*
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Safety and Security
Protection
Stability
Pain Avoidance
Routine/Order
Safety Needs *

74. Love and Belonging Social Needs Affection Acceptance Inclusion *
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Love and Belonging
Affection
Acceptance
Inclusion
Social Needs *

75. Esteem Esteem Needs Self-Respect Self-Esteem Respected by Others *
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Esteem
Esteem Needs
Self-Respect
Self-Esteem
Respected by Others *

76. *
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Self-Actualization
Achieve full potential
Fulfillment *

77. Summary Self-Actualization Esteem Belonging Safety Physiological *
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Self-Actualization
Summary
Esteem
Belonging
Physiological
Safety *