1. COMM THEORY: On Its Scientific Nature John A. Cagle, Ph.D. Communication California State University, Fresno

2. ISOMORPHISM There exists a dynamic isomorphism among reality, phenomena, theory, research design, instrumentation, statistical analysis, and computer technology. More elements are involved, but these illumine the character of science as we move into the 21st Century.

3. Isomophism is the identity in form and substance between all of these “constructions of reality.”

5. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY Two Imperatives of Science Verifiability Corrigibility Philosophical Approaches Rules Systems Laws

6. Ideal Process in Science

7. Verifiability & Corrigibility

8. Making Observations in Science Is Called Measurement Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules. – S. S. Stevens

9. Alienation PowerlessnessMeaninglessnessNormlessnessIsolation Self- Estrangement Conceptual Level Conceptual Components Operational Definitions Conceptual Definitions Observational Level Expectancy that behavior cannot determine outcomes Anticipation of rewards that lie outside the activity itself Assignment of low reward values to goals Expectancy that unapproved behaviors are required Perceived inability to comprehend decisions A set of questionnaire items Responses to questionnaire Theory Level Research Level

10. NOIR: Kinds of Observation Nominal: something is observed and given a name (e.g., hostile, leader, task) Ordinal: things in the nominal category are given a relationship to one another (e.g., tall- short, better-worse, etc.) Interval: numbers to label things with a relationship have precise distance between them (e.g., 8 is twice as much as 4) Ratio: there is a zero point in observation (e.g., speech preparation, number of words)

11. 738 Primary Scales of Measurement Scale Nominal Numbers Assigned to Runners Ordinal Rank Order of Winners Interval Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale Ratio Time to Seconds Third place Second place First place Finish 8.29.19.6 15.214.113.4

12. Abraham Kaplan Kaplan’s “styles of thinking” from The Conduct of Inquiry“styles of thinking”

13. Theories Reflect Kaplan's Levels of Thinking Literary Academic Eristic Symbolic Postulational Formal Analytic is the logical character of scientific statements Synthetic is the empirical character of scientific statements

14. Increasing Analytic Rigor Increasing Synthetic Rigor Literary theories Academic theories Eristic theories Postulational Empirical loadings Formal Math—No empirical loadings Kaplan’s Styles of Thinking

15. Increasing Analytic Rigor Increasing Synthetic Rigor Literary theories Academic theories Eristic theories Postulational Empirical loadings Formal Math—No empirical loadings Kaplan’s Styles of Thinking

16. Investigation Select a phenomenon and list all its components & their characteristics. Observe/measure all of these characteristics in a variety of situations. Analyze the observations to determine if there are any patterns worthy of further attention. If patterns have been found in the observations, state these patterns as theoretical statements.

17. Confirming Research Develop a theory. Select a statement generated by the theory (hypothesis) for comparison with observation (empirical research). Conduct research to “test” the chosen statement by observations using an experimental design. If the statement derived from the theory does not correspond with observational results, make appropriate changes in the theory or in the research design and continue with the research. If the statement from the theory corresponds with the results of the research, select additional statements for testing and/or apply theory in world with some confidence.

18. Criteria to Evaluate Theories Theoretical scope Testability Parsimony Utility Heuristic value Validity

19. CRITERIA Necessary Desirable Logically consistent Consistent with accepted facts Testable Simple Parsimonious Consistent with related theories Interpretable: explain and predict Useful Pleasing to the mind

20. Testing Theories Hypotheses and Research Questions Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Critical Scholarship

21. ScientificHumanistic EpistemologyDiscover the truthCreate meaning Human NatureDeterminismFree will Value PriorityObjectivityEmancipation Purpose of TheoryGive universal lawsGive rules for interpretation Research MethodsExperiment and SurveyTextual analysis and ethnography Standards for Evaluation Explanation of data Prediction of future Relative simplicity Testable hypotheses Practical utility Understanding of people Clarification of values Aesthetic appeal Community of agreement Reform society Ron Wright, University of Arizona