1. Cytology Biochemistry – Chap. 2 Cell Biology – Chap. 3

2. 2 Learner Outcomes: To describe the characteristics and identify the monomers of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids and to define their role in biochemical processes. To describe the characteristics and identify the monomers of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids and to define their role in biochemical processes. To analyze and explain the chemical reactions that provide energy for the body. To analyze and explain the chemical reactions that provide energy for the body. To investigate and describe the integration of the chemical and physical properties that contribute to homeostasis in cells. To investigate and describe the integration of the chemical and physical properties that contribute to homeostasis in cells. To compare the structures and functions of organelles within cells of the body. To compare the structures and functions of organelles within cells of the body. To describe the processes involved in the cell cycle. To describe the processes involved in the cell cycle.

3. 3 Importance of Water Properties: Properties:  It is polar (H+ hydrogen ion & OH- hydroxide ion)  It is polar (H+ hydrogen ion & OH- hydroxide ion)  Held together by Hydrogen Bonds  Held together by Hydrogen Bonds - relatively weak; can be broken - relatively weak; can be broken easily. easily.

4. 4 Characteristics of H2O- Why important in Living Systems 1. Universal solvent  aids in ionization of salts and  aids in ionization of salts and electrolytes within the body. electrolytes within the body. 2. Cohesive  allows blood vessels to be filled;  allows blood vessels to be filled; even distribution throughout body. even distribution throughout body. 3. High heat of vaporization  resistant to change; helps maintain  resistant to change; helps maintain homeostasis of body temp. homeostasis of body temp.

5. 5 Acids & Bases Acids – dissociate in water; release hydrogen ions (H+) Acids – dissociate in water; release hydrogen ions (H+)  Ex’s: lemon juice, hydrochloric  Ex’s: lemon juice, hydrochloric acid, coffee, tomatoes, vinegar acid, coffee, tomatoes, vinegar Bases – take up H+ ions or release hydroxide ions (OH-). Bases – take up H+ ions or release hydroxide ions (OH-).  Ex’s: milk of magnesia, ammonia  Ex’s: milk of magnesia, ammonia

6. 6 pH Scale

7. 7 pH of body fluids needs to be maintained within a narrow range, or health suffers. pH of body fluids needs to be maintained within a narrow range, or health suffers. Ave. pH of blood is 7.4 Ave. pH of blood is 7.4 Buffers are built-in mechanisms to prevent pH changes. Buffers are built-in mechanisms to prevent pH changes.  chemicals or combos of that take up excess H+ ions or hydroxide ions.  chemicals or combos of that take up excess H+ ions or hydroxide ions. - ex: combo of carbonic acid (H2CO3) & bicarbonate ion (HCO3) help maintain pH of blood. - ex: combo of carbonic acid (H2CO3) & bicarbonate ion (HCO3) help maintain pH of blood. Q: How does water play a role in this process?

8. 8 Cell Theory Review… All living things composed of 1 or more cells. All living things composed of 1 or more cells. Cells are basic unit of structure and function for any living organism. Cells are basic unit of structure and function for any living organism. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells.  Theory of BIOGENESIS

9. 9 Section 8.2 Summary – pages 201 - 210 DNA limits cell size The cell cannot survive unless there is enough DNA to support the protein needs of the cell. The cell cannot survive unless there is enough DNA to support the protein needs of the cell. In many large cells, more than one nucleus is present. In many large cells, more than one nucleus is present. Large amounts of DNA in many nuclei ensure that cell activities are carried out quickly and efficiently. Large amounts of DNA in many nuclei ensure that cell activities are carried out quickly and efficiently.

10. 10 Section 8.2 Summary – pages 201 - 210 Surface area-to-volume ratio As a cell’s size increases, its volume increases much faster than its surface area. As a cell’s size increases, its volume increases much faster than its surface area. Surface area = 6 mm 2 Volume = 1 mm 3 Surface area = 24 mm 2 Volume = 8 mm 3 1 mm 2 mm 4 mm

11. 11 Section 8.2 Summary – pages 201 - 210 Surface area = 6 mm 2 Volume = 1 mm 3 Surface area = 24 mm 2 Volume = 8 mm 3 1 mm 2 mm 4 mm If cell size doubled, the cell would require eight times more nutrients and would have eight times more waste to excrete. If cell size doubled, the cell would require eight times more nutrients and would have eight times more waste to excrete. Surface area-to-volume ratio

12. 12 Section 8.2 Summary – pages 201 - 210 Surface area-to-volume ratio Surface area = 6 mm 2 Volume = 1 mm 3 Surface area = 24 mm 2 Volume = 8 mm 3 1 mm 2 mm 4 mm The cell would either starve to death or be poisoned from the buildup of waste products. The cell would either starve to death or be poisoned from the buildup of waste products.

13. 13 Eukaryotic Cells With the exception of symbiotic and parasitic relationships with bacteria, all of the cells of our body are eukaryotic. With the exception of symbiotic and parasitic relationships with bacteria, all of the cells of our body are eukaryotic. What does this mean? What does this mean?

14. 14 Eukaryotic Cells Plasma membrane Plasma membrane Nucleus and Nucleolus Nucleus and Nucleolus Cytoplasm containing organelles Cytoplasm containing organelles Each of our bodies exhibits specialization. The presence or absence of some organelles and their arrangements vary dependant on the needs of the cell. Each of our bodies exhibits specialization. The presence or absence of some organelles and their arrangements vary dependant on the needs of the cell.

15. 15 Cellular Organization Organelles: Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi Apparatus, Lysosome/Peroxisome, Mitochondria, Vesicle, Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton, Cilia/Flagella. Organelles: Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi Apparatus, Lysosome/Peroxisome, Mitochondria, Vesicle, Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton, Cilia/Flagella. Create an analogy to explain the functions of each of these organelles. Be sure the analogy theme you use is consistent and be ready to justify your explanations. Create an analogy to explain the functions of each of these organelles. Be sure the analogy theme you use is consistent and be ready to justify your explanations. Once your group has chosen your theme, be sure to tell me so no one else uses the same idea. Once your group has chosen your theme, be sure to tell me so no one else uses the same idea.

16. 16 Fig. 3.1a

17. 17 Fig. 3.2

18. 18 Fig. 3.3

19. 19 Fig. 3.4

20. 20 Fig. 3.5

21. 21 Fig. 3.6

22. 22 Fig. 3.1b

23. 23 End of Organelle Structure and Function

24. 24 Cellular Membrane Transport

25. 25 Cellular Homeostasis – the plasma membrane Semi-permeable or Selectively permeable Semi-permeable or Selectively permeable 2 methods used in crossing the membrane – active and passive 2 methods used in crossing the membrane – active and passive Active transport requires the use of ATP. Which organelle provides this high- powered molecule for the cell? Active transport requires the use of ATP. Which organelle provides this high- powered molecule for the cell? Passive transport uses the principles of diffusion to cross the membrane and does not require the use of ATP. Passive transport uses the principles of diffusion to cross the membrane and does not require the use of ATP.

26. 26 Selectively Permeable Membrane INOUT WaterCO2 Nutrients Metabolic nitrogenous wastes Oxygen Products (proteins) HormonesHormones * Chemical composition & size determine if it goes in or out!

27. 27 Diffusion The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The characteristics of the cell membrane allow for certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane. The characteristics of the cell membrane allow for certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane. What are the characteristics of the cell membrane? What molecules might be able to diffuse through it? What are the characteristics of the cell membrane? What molecules might be able to diffuse through it?

28. 28 Diffusion Lipid membrane so – lipid-soluable materials. Lipid membrane so – lipid-soluable materials.AlcoholsHormones Very small molecules too. Very small molecules too.Oxygen Carbon dioxide Many elements

29. 29 Osmosis Diffusion of water across a plasma membrane. There must be a concentration gradient for this to occur until dynamic equilibrium is met. Diffusion of water across a plasma membrane. There must be a concentration gradient for this to occur until dynamic equilibrium is met. Normally body fluids are isotonic – there is an equal concentration of solutes and solvent on both sides of the membrane. Normally body fluids are isotonic – there is an equal concentration of solutes and solvent on both sides of the membrane. Hypotonic solutions cause cells to swell and go through lysis (burst). Hypotonic solutions cause cells to swell and go through lysis (burst). Hypertonic solutions cause the cells to shrink and crenate. Hypertonic solutions cause the cells to shrink and crenate. These changes are a result of osmotic pressure. These changes are a result of osmotic pressure.

30. 30 Fig. 3.8a

31. 31 Fig. 3.8b

32. 32 Fig. 3.8c

33. 33 Filtration Diffusion aided by blood pressure. Diffusion aided by blood pressure. Occurs in the kidneys where blood is filtered of nitrogenous waste. Occurs in the kidneys where blood is filtered of nitrogenous waste. Large substances stay behind the filtration membrane and smaller ones and water pass through. Large substances stay behind the filtration membrane and smaller ones and water pass through.

34. 34 Facilitated Transport Diffusion, from high to low concentration, using an integral protein carrier (examples: amino acids or glucose). Diffusion, from high to low concentration, using an integral protein carrier (examples: amino acids or glucose). Movement includes attachment to the protein embedded in the membrane. Movement includes attachment to the protein embedded in the membrane.

35. 35 Active Transport Movement is against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration). Movement is against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration). Requires a protein carrier and the use of ATP. ATP is used by the carrier to modify the shape of the protein. Requires a protein carrier and the use of ATP. ATP is used by the carrier to modify the shape of the protein. Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump; endocytosis, exocytosis. Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump; endocytosis, exocytosis.

36. 36 Fig. 3.9

37. 37 Endocytosis Also called phagocytosis or pinocytosis. Also called phagocytosis or pinocytosis. Process in which a portion of the plasma membrane invaginates to engulf a substance and then pinches off the membrane to form a vesicle. Process in which a portion of the plasma membrane invaginates to engulf a substance and then pinches off the membrane to form a vesicle.

38. 38 Exocytosis A process where a vesicle fuses with the other plasma membrane as secretion of the contents occur. A process where a vesicle fuses with the other plasma membrane as secretion of the contents occur.

39. 39 End of Cell Transport

40. 40 Fig. 3.10

41. 41 Fig. 3.11

42. 42 Fig. 3.12

43. 43 Fig. 3.14

44. 44 Fig. 3.15

45. 45 Protein Synthesis Transcription – synthesis of the mRNA from the DNA in the nucleus. Transcription – synthesis of the mRNA from the DNA in the nucleus. RNA polymerase – enzyme that assists in obtaining the genetic information. RNA polymerase – enzyme that assists in obtaining the genetic information. mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores of the envelope. mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores of the envelope.

46. 46 Fig. 3.13

47. 47 Protein Synthesis Translation – occurs in the cytoplasm associated with a ribosome (rRNA). The mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA all come together to bind the amino acids together into the proper proteins as dictated by the DNA. Translation – occurs in the cytoplasm associated with a ribosome (rRNA). The mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA all come together to bind the amino acids together into the proper proteins as dictated by the DNA.

48. 48

49. 49 End of Protein Synthesis