1. Duality Theory
LI Xiaolei

2. Finding the dual of an LP
When taking the dual of a given LP, we refer to the given LP as the primal. If the primal is a max problem, the dual will be a min problem, and vice versa.
For convenience, we define the variables for the max problem to be z, x1,x2,…,xn and the variables for the min problem to be w,y1,y2,…,ym.

3. Finding the dual of an LP
A normal max problem may be written as
(16)

4. Finding the dual of an LP
The dual of a normal max problem is defined to be,
(17)

5. Finding the dual of an LP
A min problem like (17) that has all ≥constraints and all variables nonnegative is called a normal min problem.
If the primal is a normal min problem like (17), we define the dual of (17) to be (16).
A tabular approach makes it easy to find the dual of an LP. A normal min problem is found by reading down; the dual is found by reading across in the table.

6. Finding the dual of an LP

7. Finding the dual of an LP
Illustrate by the Dakota problem,

8. Finding the dual of an LP

9. Finding the dual of an LP
Then, reading down, we find the Dakota dual to be

10. Finding the dual of a nonnormal LP
Many LPs are not normal max or min problem. For example,
(18)
(19)

11. Finding the dual of a nonnormal LP
An LP can be transformed into normal form.
To place a max problem into normal form, we proceed as follows:
Step 1 multiply each ≥ constraint by -1, converting it into a ≤ constraint.
Step 2 replace each equality constraint by two inequality constraints (a ≤ constraint and a ≥ constraint). Then convert the ≥ constraint to a ≤ constraint.
Step 3 replace each urs variable xi by xi=xi’-xi’’, where xi’ ≥0 and xi’’ ≥0 .

12. Finding the dual of a nonnormal LP
(18) has been transformed onto the following LP:

13. Finding the dual of a nonnormal LP
Transform a nonnormal min problem into a normal min problem:
Step 1 multiply each ≤ constraint by -1, converting it into a ≥ constraint.
Step 2 replace each equality constraint by two inequality constraints (a ≤ constraint and a ≥ constraint). Then convert the ≥ constraint to a ≤ constraint.
Step 3 replace each urs variable yi by yi=yi’-yi’’, where yi’ ≥0 and yi’’ ≥0 .

14. Finding the dual of a nonnormal max problem
Find the dual of a nonnormal max LP without going through the transformations,
Step 1 fill in table so that the primal can be read across.
Step 2 making the following changes, (a) if the ith primal constraint is a ≥ constraint, the corresponding dual variable yi must satisfy yi≤0. (b) if the ith primal constraint is an equality constraint, the dual variable yi is now unrestricted in sign. (c) if the ith primal variable is urs, the ith dual constraint will be an equality constraint.
Then the dual can be read down in the usual fashing.

15. Finding the dual of a nonnormal max problem
For example,

16. Finding the dual of a nonnormal max problem

17. Finding the dual of a nonnormal min LP
Step 1 write out the primal table.
Step 2 making the following changes, (a) if the ith primal constraint is a ≤ constraint, the corresponding dual variable xi must satisfy xi ≤0. (b) if the ith primal constraint is an equality constraint, the dual variable xi is now unrestricted in sign. (c) if the ith primal variable is urs, the ith dual constraint will be an equality constraint.
Then the dual can be read down in the usual fashing.

18. Economic interpretation of the dual problem
The dual of the Dakota problem is,

19. Economic interpretation of the dual problem
Suppose an entrepreneur wants to purchase all of Dakota’s resources. Then the entrepreneur must determine the price he or she is willing to pay for a unit of each of Dakota’s resources, then
y1=price paid for 1 board ft of lumber
y2=price paid for 1 finishing hour
y3=price paid for 1 carpentry hour

20. Economic interpretation of the dual problem
The total price that should be paid for these resources is w. the cost of purchasing the resources is to be minimized.
In setting resource prices, what constraints does the entrepreneur face?
For example, the entrepreneur must offer Dakota at least $60 for a combination of resources that includes 8 board feet of lumber, 4 finishing hours, and 2 carpentry hours, because Dakota could use these resources to produce a desk that can be sold for $60. the same reason shows the other two constraints.

21. The dual theorem and its consequences
The dual theorem states that the primal and dual have equal optimal objective function values.

22. The dual theorem and its consequences
Primal problem
(22)

23. The dual theorem and its consequences
Dual problem
(23)

24. The dual theorem and its consequences
Weak duality
If we choose any feasible solution to the primal and any feasible solution to the dual, the w-value for the feasible dual solution will be at least as large as the z-value for the feasible primal solution.

25. The dual theorem and its consequences
Lemma 1
Let
Be any feasible solution to the primal and y=[y1 y2 … ym] be any feasible solution to the dual, then (z-value for x)≤(w-value for y).

26. The dual theorem and its consequences
If a feasible solution to either the primal or the dual is readily available, weak duality can be used to obtain a bound on the optimal objective function value for the other problem.

27. The dual theorem and its consequences
Lemma 2
Let
Be a feasible solution to the primal and y=[y1 y2 … ym] be a feasible solution to the dual. If cx=yb, then x is optimal for the primal and y is optimal for the dual.

28. The dual theorem and its consequences
Lemma 3
If the primal is unbounded, the dual problem is infeasible.
Lemma 4
If the dual is unbounded, the primal is infeasible.

29. The dual theorem Theorem 1 The dual theorem
Suppose BV is an optimal basis for the primal. Then cBVB-1 is an optimal solution to the dual. Also,

30. The dual theorem Remarks
A basis BV that is feasible for the primal is optimal if and only if cBVB-1 is dual feasible.
When we find the optimal solution to the primal by using the simplex algorithm, we have also found the optimal solution to the dual.

31. The dual theorem
How to read the optimal dual solution from row 0 of the optimal tableau if the primal is a max problem
Optimal value of dual variable yi
if constraint i is a ≤ constraint
=coefficient of si in optimal row 0
if constraint i is a ≥ constraint
=-(coefficient of ei in optimal row 0)
if constraint i is a = constraint
=(coefficient of ai in optimal row 0)-M

32. Example 10
To solve the following LP,

33. Example 10
The optimal tableau,

34. Example 10
Solution
To find the dual from the tableau,

35. Example 10
From the optimal primal tableau, we can find the optimal solution to dual as follows:
Since the first primal constraint is a ≤ constraint, y1=coefficient of s1 in optimal row 0=51/23.
Since the second primal constraint is a ≥ constraint, y2=-(coefficient of e2 in optimal row 0)=-58/23.
Since the third constraint is an equality constraint, y3=(coefficient of a3 in optimal row 0)-M=9/23.

36. Example 10
By the dual theorem, the optimal dual objective function value w must equal 565/23.
In summary, the optimal dual solution is

37. The dual theorem
How to read the optimal dual solution from row 0 of the optimal tableau if the primal is a min problem
Optimal value of dual variable xi
if constraint i is a ≤ constraint
=coefficient of si in optimal row 0
if constraint i is a ≥ constraint
=-(coefficient of ei in optimal row 0)
if constraint i is a = constraint
=(coefficient of ai in optimal row 0)+M

38. The dual simplex method
When we use the simplex method to solve a max problem (primal) , we begin with a primal feasible solution. Since at least one variable in row 0 of the initial tableau has a negative coefficient, our initial primal solution is not dual feasible.
Through a sequence of simplex pivots, we maintain primal feasibility and obtain an optimal solution when dual feasibility is attained.

39. The dual simplex method
In many situations, it is easier to solve an LP by beginning with a tableau in which each variable in row 0 has a nonnegative coefficient (so the tableau is dual feasible) and at least one constraint has a negative right-hand side (so the tableau is primal infeasible).
The dual simplex method maintains a nonnegative row 0 (dual feasibility) and eventually obtains a tableau in which each right-hand side is nonnegative (primal feasibility).

40. Dual simplex method for a max problem
Step1
Is the right-hand side of each constraint nonnegative? If so, an optimal solution has been found; if not, at least one constraint has a negative right-hand side, and we go to step 2.

41. Dual simplex method for a max problem
Step2
Choose the most negative basic variable as the variable to leave the basis. The row in which the variable is basic will be the pivot row. To select the variable that enters the basis, we compute the following ratio for each variable xj that has a negative coefficient in the pivot row:
Coefficient of xj in row 0
Coefficient of xj in pivot row
Choose the variable with the smallest ratio as the entering variable.
This form of the ratio test maintains a dual feasible tableau (all variables in row 0 have nonnegative coefficients). Now use ero’s to make the entering variable a basic variable in the pivot row.

42. Dual simplex method for a max problem
Step 3
If there is any constraint in which the right-hand side is negative and each variable has a nonnegative coefficient, the LP has no feasible solution. If no constraint indicating infeasibility is found, return to step 1.

43. Dual simplex method for a max problem
To illustrate the case of an infeasible LP, suppose the dual simplex method yielded a constraint such as x1+2x2+x3=-5. since x1,x2,x3≥0, then x1+2x2+x3≥0, the constraint cannot be satisfied. In this case, the original LP must be infeasible.

44. Dual simplex method Three uses of the dual simplex follow:
Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
Finding the new optimal solution after changing a right-hand side of an LP
Solving a normal min problem

45. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
The dual simplex method is often used to find the new optimal solution to an LP after a constraint is added. When a constraint is added, one of the following three cases will occur:
Case 1 the current optimal solution satisfies the new constraint.
Case 2 the current optimal solution does not satisfy the new constraint, but the LP still has a feasible solution.
Case 3 the additional constraint causes the LP to have no feasible solution.

46. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
Suppose we have added the constraint x1+x2+x3≤11 to the Dakota problem.
The current optimal solution (z=280, x1=2, x2=0, x3=8) satisfies this constraint.
Adding a constraint to an LP either leaves the feasible region unchanged or eliminates points from the feasible region. So, it either reduces the optimal z-value or leaves it unchanged.
Since the current solution is still feasible and has z=280, it must still be optimal.

47. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
Suppose that in the Dakota problem, adds the constraint x2≥1
Since the current optimal solution has x2=0, it is no longer feasible and cannot be optimal.
Appending the constraint –x2+e4=-1 to the optimal Dakota tableau.

48. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
The variable e4=-1 is the most negative basic variable, so e4 will exit from the basis, and row 4 will be the pivot row. Since x2 is the only variable with a negative coefficient in row 4, x2 must enter into the basis.

49. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
This is an optimal tableau.

50. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
Suppose we add the constraint x1+x2≥12 to the Dakota problem.
Appending the constraint –x1-x2+e4=-12 to the optimal Dakota tableau yields,

51. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
To eliminate x1 from the new constraint,
Since e4=-10 is the most negative basic variable, e4 will leave the basis and row 4 will be the pivot row. The variable s2 is the only one with a negative coefficient in row 4, so s2 enters the basis.

52. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
Now x3 must leave the basis, and row 2 will be the pivot. Since x2 is the only variable in row 2 with a negative coefficient, x2 now enters the basis.

53. Finding the new optimal solution after a constraint is added to an LP
Row 3 cannot be satisfied. Hence the Dakota problem with the additional constraint x1+x2≥12 has no feasible solution.

54. Finding the new optimal solution after changing a right-hand side
If the right-hand side of a constraint is changed and the current basis becomes infeasible, the dual simplex can be used to find the new optimal solution.
To illustrate, suppose that 30 finishing hours are now available in Dakota problem. Then it changed the current optimal tableau to that shown ->

55. Finding the new optimal solution after changing a right-hand side
Basic
variables
z x s2+10s3=380 z=380
-2x s1+ 2s s3= s1=44
-2x2+x s s3= x3=28
x1+1.25x s2+1.5s3= x1=-3
x1 is the most negative one, so x1 must leave the basis, and row 3 will be the pivot row. Since s2 has the only negative coefficient in row 3, s2 will enter the basis.

56. Finding the new optimal solution after changing a right-hand side
Basic
variables
z+20x1+30x s3=320 z=320
4x1 +3x s s3= s1=32
4x1 +3x2+x s3= x3=16
-2x1-2.5x s2 -3s3= s2=6
This is an optimal tableau.

57. Solving a normal min problem
To solve the following LP:
Convert the LP to a max problem with objective function z’=-x1-2x2.

58. Solving a normal min problem
Subtracting excess variables e1 and e2 from the two constraints, and multiply each constraint through by -1, we can use e1 and e2 as basic variables.

59. Solving a normal min problem
At least one constraint has a negative right-hand side, so this is not an optimal tableau.
We choose the most negative basic variable e2 to leave the basis. Since e2 is basic in row 2, row 2 will be the pivot row.
To determine the entering variable, we find the following ratios:
x1 ratio=1/2=0.5
x2 ratio=2/1=2
The smaller ratio is the x1 ratio, so x1 enters the basis in row 2.

60. Solving a normal min problem
Since there is no constraint indicating infeasibility, we return to step 1.

61. Solving a normal min problem
The first constraint has a negative right-hand side, so the tableau is not optimal.
Since e1=-1 is the only negative basic variable, e1 will exit from the basis, and row 1 will be the pivot row.
The ratios are
x3 ratio=(1/2)/(3/2)=1/3
e2 ratio=(1/2)/(1/2)=1
The smallest ratio is 1/3, so x3 will enter the basis in row 1.

62. Solving a normal min problem
Since each right-hand side is nonnegative, this is an optimal tableau.
The original problem was a min problem, so the optimal solution to the original problem is
z=10/3,x1=10/3, x3=2/3 and x2=0.