1. RHETORICAL ANALYSIS & WRITING USING SOAPSTONE TO STRUCTURE AND ANALYZE ARGUMENTS

2. MODES OF DISCOURSE Description: depicts images verbally in space and time, arranging those images in a logical pattern such as spatial or by association. Narration: tells a story or relates an event, organized by chronological and spatial order, what, when, where Exposition: informs or instructs, presents ideas or “truths” objectively. Persuasion: convincing audience, proving or refuting a point of view or issue. Organized by deduction or induction.

3. KINDS OF EXPOSITION ORGANIZATION Comparison Contrast Cause and effect Classification Division Definition

4. PURPOSE Support a cause Promote change Stimulate interest Refute a theory Win agreement Arouse sympathy Provoke anger

5. AUDIENCE: WHO IS IT? Knowledge Beliefs Expectations What do they disagree with Language usage-jargon, formal, archaic, anecdotal, warm, familiar? Questions need to address?

6. Inductive reasoning— general to specific Deductive reasoning— specific to general Syllogism Cite common beliefs, cultural traditions Allusions to history, lit, religious text, myth Expert testimony Analogies/Metaphors Chronological order Order of importance Provide evidence Classify evidence Cite authority Quote research Use facts Theorize about cause and effect Argue from set precedent LOGICAL APPEALS (LOGOS)

7. Show self as trustworthy Demonstrate research time Support reasons with logical evidence Show craftsmanship in argument structure Show self as concerned Show self as knowing and respecting audience Convincingly show self as knowledgeable and reliable ETHICAL APPEAL--ETHOS

8. Use sensory details Use bias or prejudice Anecdote Connotative language— used specifically for effect Use euphemisms or explore euphemisms Use description Use figurative language Develop specific tone Use/experiment with language—esp. informal. EMOTIONAL APPEALS--PATHOS

9. Don’t claim to be able to solve the whole complex problem.  The more complex the problem, the less likely your essay is a “miracle cure.” Don’t oversimplify.  This hurts your ethos. Support your argument with CONCRETE evidence and SPECIFIC propositions Common Logical Fallacies Ad populum Begging the question Circular reasoning Either/or reasoning Hasty generalization Non sequitur Pedantry Post hoc ergo propter hoc Propaganda LOGICAL FALLACIES: ERRORS IN REASONING

10. INTRODUCING AN ARGUMENT Attention Grabber Present issue/topic with CONCRETE example or anecdote Provide background Define terms (specialized) State claim—We call this your thesis.

11. CONCESSION AND REFUTATION Writers can’t ignore the opposing side of an argument. MUST address it.  Concession acknowledges the opposition  Refutation presents argument against opposition. “Yes…but” part of your paper  Can be structured to ALL appear in intro  Can be addressed point by point in body

12. CONCLUSION Satisfying wrap up Restates claim Provides appeal to needs or values Can enrich with additional commentary Call to action/change thought DO NOT REPEAT INFORMATION

13. CONFIRMATION Provides the REASONS and EVIDENCE for writer’s claim.  Longest part of argument  Shows logic of argument  Uses rhetorical devices  Develops argument  Not just logos  Pathos—esp. to human values or needs

14. WORKS CONSULTED College Board (2002). The AP Vertical Teams Guide for English 2 nd edition.