1. CHAPTER 4: POLICY ISSUES & FORMULATION Text: Cubbage et al., 1992

2. 1. problem formation 2. policy agenda 3. formulation 4. adoption 5. implementation 6. Evaluation Chapter 4 examines first 4 steps. POLICY PROCESS

3.  Problem formation  problem perception, recognition, & definition  Policy formation  research, review, projection, & selection  What is a problem?  What is an issue? PROBLEMS & ISSUES

4.  Problems: –Many, but only few become important issues –Characterized by wide disagreement Problem Formation

5.  4 groups/ways that trigger issues: –groups who perceive unfavorable bias toward their views –groups who exploit issues for own gain –unanticipated events –people/groups who do it for public interest (they do not reap any direct benefits) Issue Creation

6. 1. Distributive issues – fund alloc. 2. Regulatory issues – policy dev., directions 3. Redistributive issues 3 Types of Issues

7.  2 types of network to identify public forest res. mgmt. issues in NFs: –Formal (include SIGs & institutions) –Informal (discussions with citizens)  FS recognizes 3 types of issues: 1. emerging 1. emerging 2. existing 2. existing 3. disruptive 3. disruptive Illustration: USFS Issue Identification

8.  2 types of agenda –General or systemic –Formal  Gatekeepers – ones with authority to allow issues for consideration AGENDAS & ISSUE EXPANSION

9. 4 factors help determine if issue will reach agenda status 1. reaction to the issue itself 2. group organization, size, structure, leadership 3. group representation 4. policy process itself

10. Four groups dealt with by issue disputants: 1. identification groups – share interest 2. attention groups –related issues 3. attentive public -- generally interested, informed about policy issues 4. general public –uninterested, uninformed, inactive on most issues Issue Expansion

11. To attract attention and expand:  Ambiguity – less divisive  Socially relevant – affects basic welfare  Technical terms – limits expansion  Novelty – no precedent attracts attention  Long-term consequences Issue Characteristics

12.  Language, pictures, & mass media --instrumental  Symbols used for impact (accuracy/reality secondary)  Pictures often better than words  Table 4-1 – words describing public policy features –Low pH precipitation (scientists) vs acid rain (citizens) –Riparian areas (ecologists) vs streambank (citizens) –Old-growth forests (foresters) vs ancient forests (preservationists) –Current examples & how they affect people? Symbols & Expansion Strategy

13. Example: Deer management in Iowa Who are in the following groups and what expansion strategies will you use to reach them? 1. identification groups? 2. attention groups? 3. attentive public? 4. general public? Issue Expansion: An Iowa Example

14. Some strategies to keep issues off agenda

15. 1. Define issue in dull, narrow, or technical terms 2. Discredit group leaders - Appeal to members rather than deal with leaders 3. Anticipate & respond to problems as they arise - Helps localize problems Some strategies to keep issues off agenda

16. Participants in formulation of policy proposals  National: president (including advisors in executive office), Congress, judges, govt agency personnel (bureaucrats), special study groups or commissions, legislative support units (GAO, OTA)  State: equivalent office holders  governor, members of state congress, judges, state government personnel POLICY FORMULATION & ADOPTION

17. 1. Rationalism 2. Incrementalism 3. Mixed scanning Three Models of Policy Adoption Process

18. Rationalism:  Policies selected after thorough analysis  Choice based on clear criteria  Involves reasoned choices  Policy choice: ex. to max net value to society; to most effectively achieve a given end  Comprehensive: clear picture of problem, ranking of goals/objectives; evaluation & comparison of alternatives  Criticisms –Problems/goals/objectives – often unclear –Data/info/time needs are enormous, costly, impossible –Impossible to apply to complex problems 3 Models of Policy Adoption Process (contd)

19. Incrementalism:  Policy formulated as variation of past policies  Little analysis of program alternatives/impacts  Science of “”  Science of “muddling through”  Successive limited comparisons (increments)  Fits real world better than rationalism  Criticisms –Favors most powerful/organized interests in society –Favors status quo, does not lead to great changes or social innovations 3 Models of Policy Adoption Process (contd)

20. Mixed Scanning:  Synthesis of the 2 models  Allows for both fundamental & incremental decisions, depend on situation  Incrementalism is common in Congress  Rationalism – more used at agency/project level  Applicable, esp. if there are few alternatives & costs/benefits/criteria 3 Models of Policy Adoption Process (contd)

21.  Techniques for resolving issues that rely more on personal meetings –Avoids courts & legislature (costs & delays)  Mediation & negotiation: 3 forms 1.Environmental mediation 2.Principled negotiation 3.Mediation ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

22.  Principled Negotiation: 4 steps 1.Separate personal differences from problems to avoid emotional debates 2.Focus on interest, not positions 9what people want, not a specific program or means of achieving those wants) 3.There should be many proposed alternatives in search for agreement 4.Objective criteria must be agreed on for decision-making. DISPUTE RESOLUTION (cont.)