1. Names and Scope

2. Scope Suppose that a name is used many times for different entities in text of the program, or in the course of execution. When the name is used, to which of these entities does it refer?

3. Types of names Variables Constants Statement labels Functions/procedures Types Macros Exceptions Modules (packages, files, etc.)

4. Postponing Names of modules and references between modules (to lecture on modules) Variables used in functions passed as parameters and returned as values (to lecture on functional programming) Exceptions (to lecture on exceptions).

5. Easy cases Types and macros are (as far as I know) global to a module. Statements labels are scoped within the function, and are visible in that functions and in lexically contained functions.

6. Function names In non-hierarchical languages (e.g. C), function names are global to the module. Some languages require that a function be declared lexically before it is used; others do not. If you impose this rule for mutually recursive functions, then there must be declarations that are separate from definition.

7. Function names: Hierarchical languages Closest nested scope: Suppose that function C is lexically inside B which is lexically inside A, and C calls function F. In order look for a declaration of F immediately inside first C, then B, then A, then global. Otherwise, the reference is invalid.

8. Example (Pascal) function A() function F() begin … end // Body of F 1 function B() function F() begin … end // Body of F 2 function C() begin … F() … end // Body of C. Call to F 2 begin … F() … end // Body of B. Call to F 2 function D() begin … F() … end // Body of D. Call to F 1 begin … F() … end // Body of A. Call to F 1

9. Scope of Function Name Nothing particularly interesting has to be done in terms of the compiled code. The compiler uses the scope rule to assign the reference, but the calling and returning protocols are unaffected.

10. Scope of Variables Static scope (also called “lexical scope”). As with functions, use the nearest containing scope that declares the variable. Note: The reference can be determined at compile time. Dynamic scope. Use the most recent declaration in the calling sequence

11. Static and dynamic scoping: Example int N; void main() {N=1; A(); printf(“main: %1d”,N);} void A() int N; { N = 2; B(); printf(“A: %1d. ”, N); } void B() { N = 3; } Static scoping: Prints “A: 2. main: 3” (I in B is global) Dynamic scoping: Prints “A: 3. main: 1” (I in B is I in A)

12. Implementing static scoping: no function imbedding Trivial: Variables are either local (in current activation record) or global (fixed address).

13. Implementing static scoping: function imbedding Each activation record on the stack has a static link to the activation record of the most recent call to the routine that lexically contains it. To resolve a reference to a variable in a routine K levels out from the current routine, follow the chain of static links K steps to the proper activation record, and then go the appropriate offset. Number of links and offset are known at compile time.

14. function A() { int I; function B() { int J; function C() { int K; K=I+J; B(); } C(); } // body of B. B(); } // body of A. A calls B calls C calls B calls C.

15. Setting static links in calling protocol If F calls G and G is immediately lexically contained in H, then (by the scoping rules for functions) either –F=H, in which case the static link from G points to the static link in F’s activation record –or F is lexically contained in H (not necessarily immediately), in which case the link to H is a known number of steps down the static chain from F. In either case, the compiler can determine how F should set the static link for G.

16. Implementing dynamic scoping: symbol table Symbol table: For each variable name X, keep a pointer to the most recent version of X. If function F declares X, then F must store a pointer to the previous version of X. On entering routine F, push a pointer to previous location of X onto stack, On exiting F, restore previous value of X to symbol table.

17. Example function A() { int I,J; B(); } function B() { int J,K; C(); } function C() { int I,K B(); } A calls B calls C calls B.

19. Declarations and definitions Is declaration separate from definition? If a name is declared, is the scope the entire context, or only after it is declared? Can a name be used before it is declared? Particularly important for mutually recursive types and function definitions. In weird cases, it can be important for constant definitions.

20. Mutually recursive functions: Pascal forward procedure B(I: integer) // declaration procedure A(I: integer) // declaration and begin B(I-1) end // definition procedure B(I: integer) // definition begin A(I-1) end

21. Mutually recursive functions: C void B(int I); // declaration void A(int I) { B(I-1); } // declaration and // definition void B(int I) { A(I-1); } // definition Ada is similar.

22. Recursive types: Pascal In defining a pointer type P, you can refer to another type T before T has been declared (because nothing about P, such as the size, actually depends on T). type PRED = ^RED; PBLACK = ^BLACK; RED = record V,D: Integer; L,R: PBLACK end; BLACK = record V,D: Integer; L,R: PRED end;

23. Recursive types: C Separate declaration from definition, like functions. struct RED; struct BLACK { int V, P; struct RED *L, *R; } struct RED { int V,P; struct BLACK *L, *R; }

24. Constant anomaly in Pascal (and some other languages) Scope of a declaration is the entire block. Declarations must precede use. const N=10; procedure f; const M=N; N=20; In “M=N”, N refers to the declaration in f; hence it is used before it is declared.