1. Mu‘tazilitesvs.Traditionalists Free will/personalGod creates/ responsibilitycontrols all acts God’s attributesGod’s attributes metaphoricalreal Preferred reasonPreferred text over text- Qur’ani.e. Qur’an/ createdhadith - Qur’an eternal kalam (Muslim apologetic theology) al-Ma’mun (r. 813-33) Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855) 1017 and 1041 Caliphs require subjects to reject Mu‘tazilite theology

2. Abu’l-Hasan al-Ash‘ari (d. 935) and followers God’s attributes truly exist, but do not detract from power, because they are not like our attributes and are beyond our understanding Faith important, but must be proved through action (mixes Mu‘tazilite and Traditionalist positions) God and Qur’an are eternal, universe is not

3. Abu’l-Hasan al-Ash‘ari (d. 935) and followers God controls all actions, but humans are responsible for their good and bad actions even though God decrees what is good and evil (opposes Mu‘tazilite view that reason can determine this) because God creates all actions, but humans “acquire” the actions they perform, so are still responsible for them

4. Al-Maturidi of Samarqand (d. 944) Humans acquire their actions, but connected to intention of humans to perform acts, so evil deeds result of human choice God gave humans capacity for reason, so required to use it. Reason even allowed knowledge of God before prophets (al-Ash‘ari claims prophets necessary) Follows al-Ash‘ari on eternal God and issue of God’s attributes

5. Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali ibn Isma‘il al-Ash‘ari (b. Basra 873/4, d. Baghdad 935) Little known of life. Originally studied under Mu‘tazilite named al-Jubba’i in Basra 912/3 Rejected Mu‘tazilite position and adopted Traditionalist position, though maintained Mu‘tazilite-style reasoning Various works incl. Kitab al-Luma‘, theological treatise intended to refute Mu‘tazilites and other opponents