1. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 1

2. Database II

3. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Goals and Objectives 3 The course goals are to introduce students to the Advance Topics of Databases Systems. DBMS are at the heart of modern commercial application development. use extends beyond this to many applications Large amounts of data Storage with efficient update and retrieval. The aim of this course is to study the internals of DBMSs. Students are introduced to the major problems to be faced when building a DBMS and also the ideas behind and algorithms to implement solutions of these problems.

4. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Text Book & Reference Books 4  Text Book  Fundamentals of Database Systems by R. Elmasri and S. Navathe, 5th Edition 2007, Benjamin/Cummings  Database Systems Concepts By Abraham Silberschatz (Fifth Edition)  Reference Books  Modern Database management, Eight Edition, By Jefrey A. Hoffer & Mary B. Prescott.

5. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe 5 Background: Prerequisite lectures Relational Algebra Sects: 6.1 –– 6.3 – 6.4 – 6.5 Basic Algebra Operations (projection, selection, and join) Types of join (Θ-join, Equi-join, and Natural join) Set Operations (Union, Intersection, and Difference) Division Operation SQL Sects: 8.4 – 8.5 – 8.8 Basic SELECT-FROM-WHERE query block Nested queries Views Indexing Sects: 14.1 – 14.2 – 14.3

6. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Contents 6 Chapter 15 - Algorithms for Query Processing and Optimization 3-4 Weeks Translating SQL Queries into Relational Algebra Algorithms for External Sorting Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations Algorithms for PROJECT and SET Operations Implementing Aggregate Operations and OUTER JOINS Combining Operations Using Pipelining Using Heuristics in Query Optimization Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization Overview of Query Optimization in Oracle Semantic Query Optimization

7. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Contents Transaction Processing 5-6 Weeks Chapter 17 - Introduction to Transaction Processing Concepts and Theory Introduction to Transaction Processing Transaction and System Concepts Desirable Properties of Transactions Characterizing Schedules Based on Recoverability Characterizing Schedules Based on Serializability Transaction Support in SQL 7 Cont…

8. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Contents Chapter 18 - Concurrency Control Techniques Two-Phase Locking Techniques for Concurrency Control Concurrency Control Based on Timestamp Ordering Multiversion Concurrency Control Techniques Validation (Optimistic) Concurrency Control Techniques Granularity of Data Items and Multiple Granularity Locking Using Locks for Concurrency Control in Indexes Other Concurrency Control Issues 8 Cont…

9. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Contents Chapter 19 - Database Recovery Techniques Recovery Concepts Recovery Techniques Based on Deferred Update Recovery Techniques Based on Immediate Update Shadow Paging The ARIES Recovery Algorithm Recovery in Multidatabase Systems Database Backup and Recovery from Catastrophic Failures Security2 Weeks Chapter 23: Database Security Cont…

10. QUERY PROCESSING and OPTIMIZATION

11. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Agenda of QUERY PROCESSING and OPTIMIZATION I. Query Processing and Optimization: Why? II. Steps of Processing 0. Introduction to Query Processing 1. Translating SQL Queries into Relational Algebra 2. Algorithms for External Sorting 3. Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations 4. Algorithms for PROJECT and SET Operations 5. Implementing Aggregate Operations and Outer Joins 6. Combining Operations using Pipelining

12. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Agenda of QUERY PROCESSING and OPTIMIZATION III.Methods of Optimization 7. Using Heuristics in Query Optimization  Heuristic (Logical Transformations)  Transformation Rules  Heuristic Optimization Guidelines 8. Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization  Cost Based (Physical Execution Costs)  Data Storage/Access Refresher  Catalog & Costs 9. Overview of Query Optimization in Oracle 10. Semantic Query Optimization IV. What All This Means To YOU?

13. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Query Processing & Optimization What is Query Processing? Steps required to transform high level SQL query into a correct and “efficient” strategy for execution and retrieval. What is Query Optimization? The activity of choosing a single “efficient” execution strategy (from hundreds) as determined by database catalog statistics.

14. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Questions for Query Optimization Which relational algebra expression, equivalent to the given query, will lead to the most efficient solution plan? For each algebraic operator, what algorithm (of several available) do we use to compute that operator? How do operations pass data (main memory buffer, disk buffer,…)? Will this plan minimize resource usage? (CPU/Response Time/Disk)

15. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Query Processing: Who needs it? A motivating example: Results in these equivalent relational algebra statements (1)  (position=‘Manager’)^(city=‘London’)^(Staff.branchNo=Branch.branchNo) (Staff X Branch) (2)  (position=‘Manager’)^(city=‘London’) (Staff  Staff.branchNo = Branch.branchNo Branch) (3) [  (position=‘Manager’) (Staff)]  Staff.branchNo = Branch.branchNo [  (city=‘London’) (Branch)] Identify all managers who work in a London branch SELECT * FROM Staff s, Branch b WHERE s.branchNo = b.branchNo AND s.position = ‘Manager’ AND b.city = ‘london’;

16. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe A Motivating Example (cont…) Assume: 1000 tuples in Staff. ~ 50 Managers 50 tuples in Branch. ~ 5 London branches No indexes or sort keys All temporary results are written back to disk (memory is small) Tuples are accessed one at a time (not in blocks)

17. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Motivating Example: Query 1 (Bad)  (position=‘Manager’)^(city=‘London’)^(Staff.branchNo=Branch.branchNo) (Staff X Branch) Requires (1000+50) disk accesses to read from Staff and Branch relations Creates temporary relation of Cartesian Product (1000*50) tuples Requires (1000*50) disk access to read in temporary relation and test predicate Total Work = (1000+50) + 2*(1000*50) = 101,050 I/O operations

18. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Motivating Example: Query 2 (Better) Again requires (1000+50) disk accesses to read from Staff and Branch Joins Staff and Branch on branchNo with 1000 tuples (1 employee : 1 branch ) Requires (1000) disk access to read in joined relation and check predicate Total Work = (1000+50) + 2*(1000) = 3050 I/O operations 3300% Improvement over Query 1  (position=‘Manager’)^(city=‘London’) ( Staff  Staff.branchNo = Branch.branchNo Branch )

19. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Motivating Example: Query 3 (Best) Read Staff relation to determine ‘Managers’ (1000 reads) Create 50 tuple relation(50 writes) Read Branch relation to determine ‘London’ branches (50 reads) Create 5 tuple relation(5 writes) Join reduced relations and check predicate (50 + 5 reads) Total Work = 1000 + 2*(50) + 5 + (50 + 5) = 1160 I/O operations 8700% Improvement over Query 1 Consider if Staff and Branch relations were 10x size? 100x? Yikes! [  (position=‘Manager’) (Staff) ]  Staff.branchNo = Branch.branchNo [  (city=‘London’) (Branch) ]

20. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 20 0. Introduction to Query Processing (1) Query optimization: The process of choosing a suitable execution strategy for processing a query. Two internal representations of a query: Query Tree Query Graph

21. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 21 Introduction to Query Processing (2) Identification of the query language Check Attributes and Relations Check Syntaxes Creation of possible Relational algebra Choose the strategy for executing the query and produce the optimal executing plan

22. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 22 1. Translating SQL Queries into Relational Algebra (1) Query block: The basic unit that can be translated into the algebraic operators and optimized. A query block contains a single SELECT-FROM- WHERE expression, as well as GROUP BY and HAVING clause if these are part of the block. Nested queries within a query are identified as separate query blocks. Aggregate operators in SQL must be included in the extended algebra.

23. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 23 Translating SQL Queries into Relational Algebra (2) SELECT LNAME, FNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY > (SELECT MAX (SALARY) FROMEMPLOYEE WHERE DNO = 5); SELECTMAX (SALARY) FROMEMPLOYEE WHERE DNO = 5 SELECT LNAME, FNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY > C π LNAME, FNAME ( σ SALARY>C (EMPLOYEE)) ℱ MAX SALARY ( σ DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE))

24. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 24 2. Algorithms for External Sorting (1) External sorting: Refers to sorting algorithms that are suitable for large files of records stored on disk that do not fit entirely in main memory, such as most database files. Sort-Merge strategy: Starts by sorting small subfiles (runs) of the main file and then merges the sorted runs, creating larger sorted subfiles that are merged in turn. Sorting phase: n R =  (b/n B )  Merging phase: d M = Min (n B -1, n R ); n P =  (log dM (n R ))  n R : number of initial runs; b: number of file blocks; n B : available buffer space; d M : degree of merging; n P : number of passes.

25. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Sort/Merge Partition Sort Merge

26. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Merging Single phase

27. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Merging Multiple phase

28. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe External Sorting Sort-merge strategy ⑴ The Sorting phase  Runs of file are read into main memory  Runs are sorted using an internal sorting algorithm  Runs are written back to disk as temporary sorted subfiles n R : number of initial runs b : number of file blocks n B : available buffer space n R : Example: n B : 5 blocks, b: 1024 blocks n B = = 205 runs

29. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe External Sorting Sort-merge strategy (Cont.) ⑵ Merging phase Sorted runs are merged during one or more passses. d M : degree of merging (d M –way merging) d M : degree of merging (d M –way merging) number of runs that can be merged together in each pass d M = min ( ( n B-1 ), n R ) number of passes = ┌ ┐ d M = min ( ( n B-1 ), n R ) number of passes = ┌ ┐

30. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Example: (2 ＊ b + 2 ＊ ) d M = 4 ( 4-way merging) External Sorting Sort-merge strategy (Cont.) 11111 … 4 4 1 ….. 16 13 ….. 6461 ….. 205 52 13 4 1 2 3 4

31. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe 2. Algorithms for External Sorting (1) The typical external sorting algorithm uses a sort-merge strategy, which starts by sorting small subfiles—called runs—of the main file and then merges the sorted runs, creating larger sorted subfiles that are merged in turn. The sort- merge algorithm, like other database algorithms, requires buffer space in main memory, where the actual sorting and merging of the runs is performed. two phases: the sorting phase and the merging phase.

32. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe 2. Algorithms for External Sorting (1) In the sorting phase, runs (portions or pieces) of the file that can fit in the available buffer space are read into main memory, sorted using an internal sorting algorithm, and written back to disk as temporary sorted subfiles (or runs). The size of a run and number of initial runs (nR) is dictated by the number of file blocks (b) and the available buffer space (nB). For example, if nB = 5 blocks and the size of the file b = 1024 blocks, then nR= (b/nB) or 205 initial runs each of size 5 blocks (except the last run which will have 4 blocks). Hence, after the sort phase, 205 sorted runs are stored as temporary subfiles on disk.

33. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe 2. Algorithms for External Sorting (1) In the merging phase, the sorted runs are merged during one or more passes. The degree of merging (dM) is the number of runs that can be merged in each pass. In each pass, one buffer block is needed to hold one block from each of the runs being merged, and one block is needed for containing one block of the merge result. Hence, dM is the smaller of (nB − 1) and nR, and the number of passes is (logdM(nR)). In our example, dM = 4 (four-way merging), so the 205 initial sorted runs would be merged into 52 at the end of the first pass, which are then merged into 13, then 4, then 1 run, which means that four passes are needed.

34. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe 2. Algorithms for External Sorting (1) The minimum dM of 2 gives the worst-case performance of the algorithm, which is (2 ∗ b) + (2 ∗ (b ∗ (log2 b))). The first term represents the number of block accesses for the sort phase, since each file block is accessed twice— once for reading into memory and once for writing the records back to disk after sorting. The second term represents the number of block accesses for the merge phase, assuming the worst-case dM of 2. In general, the log is taken to the base dM and the expression for number of block accesses becomes (2 ∗ b) + (2 ∗ (b ∗ (logdM nR))).

35. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Overview User select * from R, S where … R, B+Tree on R.a S, Hash Index on S.a … Results Query Parser Resolve the references, Syntax errors etc. Converts the query to an internal format relational algebra like Query Optimizer Find the best way to evaluate the query Which index to use ? What join method to use ? … Query Processor Read the data from the files Do the query processing joins, selections, aggregates …

36. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe “Cost” Complicated to compute We will focus on disk: Number of I/Os ? Not sufficient Number of seeks matters a lot… why ? t T – time to transfer one block t S – time for one seek Cost for b block transfers plus S seeks b * t T + S * t S Measured in seconds

37. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 37 3. Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (1) Implementing the SELECT Operation Examples: (OP1):  SSN='123456789' (EMPLOYEE) (OP2):  DNUMBER>5 (DEPARTMENT) (OP3):  DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE) (OP4):  DNO=5 AND SALARY>30000 AND SEX=F (EMPLOYEE) (OP5):  ESSN=123456789 AND PNO=10 (WORKS_ON)

38. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Basic Algorithms for Executing Query Operations Implementing SELECT (OP1) σ SSN=12345689 (EMPLOYEE) equality comparison on key attribute (OP2) σ DNUMBER > 5 (DEPARMENT) nonequality comparison on key attribute (OP3) σ DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE) equality comparison on non key attribute (OP4) σ DNO=5 AND SALARY >30000 AND SEX=F (EMPLOYEE) conjunctive condition (OP5) σ ESSN=123456789 AND DNO=10 (WORKS_ON) conjunctive condition and composite key

39. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Search Methods for Selection file scans / index scans S1. Linear Search (brute force) S2. Binary Search SSN=123456789 (OP1) ordering attribute for EMPLOYEE S3. Use primary index or hash key (single record) SSN=123456789 (OP1) Primary index or hash key S4. Use primary index (multiple records) DNUMBER>5 (OP2) primary index S5. Use clustering index (multiple records) DNO=5 (OP3) clustering index Locate Find proceeding subsequent

40. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 40 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (2) Implementing the SELECT Operation (contd.): Search Methods for Simple Selection: S1 Linear search (brute force): Retrieve every record in the file, and test whether its attribute values satisfy the selection condition. S2 Binary search: If the selection condition involves an equality comparison on a key attribute on which the file is ordered, binary search (which is more efficient than linear search) can be used. (See OP1). S3 Using a primary index or hash key to retrieve a single record: If the selection condition involves an equality comparison on a key attribute with a primary index (or a hash key), use the primary index (or the hash key) to retrieve the record.

41. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Selection Operation select * from person where SSN = “123” Option 1: Sequential Scan Read the relation start to end and look for “123” Can always be used (not true for the other options) Cost ? Let b r = Number of relation blocks Then: 1 seek and br block transfers So: t S + b r * t T sec Improvements: If SSN is a key, then can stop when found So on average, b r /2 blocks accessed

42. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Selection Operation select * from person where SSN = “123” Option 2 : Binary Search: Pre-condition: The relation is sorted on SSN Selection condition is an equality E.g. can’t apply to “Name like ‘%424%’” Do binary search Cost of finding the first tuple that matches  log 2 (b r )  * (t T + t S ) All I/Os are random, so need a seek for all The last few are closeby, but we ignore such small effects Not quite: What if 10000 tuples match the condition ? Incurs additional cost

43. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 14- 43 Primary index on the ordering key field

44. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 44 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (3) Implementing the SELECT Operation (contd.): Search Methods for Simple Selection: S4 Using a primary index to retrieve multiple records: If the comparison condition is >, ≥, <, or ≤ on a key field with a primary index, use the index to find the record satisfying the corresponding equality condition, then retrieve all subsequent records in the (ordered) file. S5 Using a clustering index to retrieve multiple records: If the selection condition involves an equality comparison on a non- key attribute with a clustering index, use the clustering index to retrieve all the records satisfying the selection condition. S6 Using a secondary index: On an equality comparison, this search method can be used to retrieve a single record if the indexing field has unique values (is a key) or to retrieve multiple records if the indexing field is not a key. In addition, it can be used to retrieve records on conditions involving >,>=, <, or <=. (FOR RANGE QUERIES)

45. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 14- 45 A Clustering Index Example FIGURE 14.2 A clustering index on the DEPTNUMBER ordering non-key field of an EMPLOYEE file.

46. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 14- 46 A Two-level Primary Index

47. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 14- 47 Example of a Dense Secondary Index

48. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 14- 48 An Example of a Secondary Index

49. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 49 3. Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (1) Implementing the SELECT Operation Examples: (OP1):  SSN='123456789' (EMPLOYEE) (OP2):  DNUMBER>5 (DEPARTMENT) (OP3):  DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE) (OP4):  DNO=5 AND SALARY>30000 AND SEX=F (EMPLOYEE) (OP5):  ESSN=123456789 AND PNO=10 (WORKS_ON)

50. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 50 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (4) Implementing the SELECT Operation (contd.): Search Methods for Simple Selection: S7 Conjunctive selection: If an attribute involved in any single simple condition in the conjunctive condition has an access path that permits the use of one of the methods S2 to S6, use that condition to retrieve the records and then check whether each retrieved record satisfies the remaining simple conditions in the conjunctive condition. S8 Conjunctive selection using a composite index If two or more attributes are involved in equality conditions in the conjunctive condition and a composite index (or hash structure) exists on the combined field, we can use the index directly.

51. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe COND1 AND COND2 AND …AND CONDN More than one of attributes involved in conditions that have access path Choose the access path 1. Retrieve the fewest records 2. In the most efficient way selectivity= estimates of selectivities = (1) key attribute (2) nonkey attribute where i : # of listing values for attribute in r(n)

52. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 52 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (5) Implementing the SELECT Operation (contd.): Search Methods for Complex Selection: S9 Conjunctive selection by intersection of record pointers: This method is possible if secondary indexes are available on all (or some of) the fields involved in equality comparison conditions in the conjunctive condition and if the indexes include record pointers (rather than block pointers). Each index can be used to retrieve the record pointers that satisfy the individual condition. The intersection of these sets of record pointers gives the record pointers that satisfy the conjunctive condition, which are then used to retrieve those records directly. If only some of the conditions have secondary indexes, each retrieved record is further tested to determine whether it satisfies the remaining conditions.

53. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Selection Operation Complex selections Conjunctive: select * from accounts where balance > 100000 and SSN = “123” Disjunctive: select * from accounts where balance > 100000 or SSN = “123” Option 1: Sequential scan (Conjunctive only) Option 2: Using an appropriate index on one of the conditions E.g. Use SSN index to evaluate SSN = “123”. Apply the second condtion to the tuples that match Or do the other way around (if index on balance exists) Which is better ? (Conjunctive only) Option 3: Choose a multi-key index Not commonly available

54. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Selection Operation Complex selections Conjunctive: select * from accounts where balance > 100000 and SSN = “123” Disjunctive: select * from accounts where balance > 100000 or SSN = “123” Option 4: Conjunction or disjunction of record identifiers Use indexes to find all RIDs that match each of the conditions Do an intersection (for conjunction) or a union (for disjunction) Sort the records and fetch them in one shot Called “Index-ANDing” or “Index-ORing” Heavily used in commercial systems

55. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 55 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (7) Implementing the SELECT Operation (contd.): Whenever a single condition specifies the selection, we can only check whether an access path exists on the attribute involved in that condition. If an access path exists, the method corresponding to that access path is used; otherwise, the “brute force” linear search approach of method S1 is used. (See OP1, OP2 and OP3) For conjunctive selection conditions, whenever more than one of the attributes involved in the conditions have an access path, query optimization should be done to choose the access path that retrieves the fewest records in the most efficient way. Disjunctive selection conditions

56. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 56 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (8) Implementing the JOIN Operation: Join (EQUIJOIN, NATURAL JOIN) two–way join: a join on two files e.g. R A=B S multi-way joins: joins involving more than two files. e.g. R A=B S C=D T Examples (OP6): EMPLOYEE DNO=DNUMBER DEPARTMENT (OP7): DEPARTMENT MGRSSN=SSN EMPLOYEE

57. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 57 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (9) Implementing the JOIN Operation (contd.): Methods for implementing joins: J1 Nested-loop join (brute force): For each record t in R (outer loop), retrieve every record s from S (inner loop) and test whether the two records satisfy the join condition t[A] = s[B]. J2 Single-loop join (Using an access structure to retrieve the matching records): If an index (or hash key) exists for one of the two join attributes — say, B of S — retrieve each record t in R, one at a time, and then use the access structure to retrieve directly all matching records s from S that satisfy s[B] = t[A].

58. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 58 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (10) Implementing the JOIN Operation (contd.): Methods for implementing joins: J3 Sort-merge join: If the records of R and S are physically sorted (ordered) by value of the join attributes A and B, respectively, we can implement the join in the most efficient way possible. Both files are scanned in order of the join attributes, matching the records that have the same values for A and B. In this method, the records of each file are scanned only once each for matching with the other file—unless both A and B are non-key attributes, in which case the method needs to be modified slightly.

59. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 59 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (10) Implementing the JOIN Operation (contd.): Methods for implementing joins: J3 Sort-merge join: If the files are not sorted, they may be sorted first by using external sorting (see Section 15.2) In this method, pairs of file blocks are copied into memory buffers in order and the records of each file are scanned only once each for matching with the other file

60. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 60 Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations (14) Implementing the JOIN Operation (contd.): Factors affecting JOIN performance Available buffer space Join selection factor Choice of inner VS outer relation

61. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Buffer Space on Join Performance (OP 6) EMPLOYEE ⋈ DNO = DNUMBER DEPARTMENT ( J1 ) nested-loop approach n B = 7 blocks (buffers) DEPARTMENT r D =50 records b D = 10 disk blocks EMPLOYEE r E =5000 records b E = 2000 disk blocks Outer loop file: n B － 2 blocks Inner loop file: 1 block Result file: 1 block

62. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Buffer Space on Join Performance (Cont.) 1) EMPLOYEE used for outer loop of blocks accessed for outer file: b E of times (n B － 2 ) blocks of outer file are loaded : of blocks accessed for inner file:

63. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Buffer Space on Join Performance (Cont.) 1) DEPARTMENT used for outer loop bRES: result file of join operation

64. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Join Selection Factor on join performance The percentage of records in a file will be joined with records in the other file (OP7) DEPARTMENT ⋈ MGRSSN=SSN EMPLOYEE Assume secondary indexes exist on SSN of EMPLOYEE and MGRSSN of DEPARTMENT X SSN = 4 X MGRSSN =2 50 records5000 records 4950 will not be joined

65. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Join Selection Factor on join performance (Cont.) 1) Retrieve each EMPLOYEE record and then use the index on MGRSSN of DEPARTMENT

66. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Join Selection Factor on join performance (Cont.) 2) Retrieve each DEPARTMENT record and then uses the index on SSN of EMPLOYEE 3) Sort merge join J3 b E + b D + b E log 2 b E + b D log 2 b D Smaller file The file that has a match for every record mergesort

67. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 67 4. Algorithms for PROJECT and SET Operations (1) Algorithm for PROJECT operations  (R) 1. If has a key of relation R, extract all tuples from R with only the values for the attributes in. 2. If does NOT include a key of relation R, duplicated tuples must be removed from the results. Methods to remove duplicate tuples 1. Sorting 2. Hashing

68. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 68 Algorithms for PROJECT and SET Operations (2) Algorithm for SET operations Set operations: UNION, INTERSECTION, SET DIFFERENCE and CARTESIAN PRODUCT CARTESIAN PRODUCT of relations R and S include all possible combinations of records from R and S. The attribute of the result include all attributes of R and S. Cost analysis of CARTESIAN PRODUCT If R has n records and j attributes and S has m records and k attributes, the result relation will have n*m records and j+k attributes. CARTESIAN PRODUCT operation is very expensive and should be avoided if possible.

69. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 69 Algorithms for PROJECT and SET Operations (3) Algorithm for SET operations (contd.) UNION Sort the two relations on the same attributes. Scan and merge both sorted files concurrently, whenever the same tuple exists in both relations, only one is kept in the merged results. INTERSECTION Sort the two relations on the same attributes. Scan and merge both sorted files concurrently, keep in the merged results only those tuples that appear in both relations. SET DIFFERENCE R-S Keep in the merged results only those tuples that appear in relation R but not in relation S.

70. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 70 5. Implementing Aggregate Operations and Outer Joins (1) Implementing Aggregate Operations: Aggregate operators: MIN, MAX, SUM, COUNT and AVG Options to implement aggregate operators: Table Scan Index Example SELECT MAX (SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEE; If an (ascending) index on SALARY exists for the employee relation, then the optimizer could decide on traversing the index for the largest value, which would entail following the right most pointer in each index node from the root to a leaf.

71. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 71 Implementing Aggregate Operations and Outer Joins (2) Implementing Aggregate Operations (contd.): SUM, COUNT and AVG For a dense index (each record has one index entry): Apply the associated computation to the values in the index. For a non-dense index: Actual number of records associated with each index entry must be accounted for With GROUP BY: the aggregate operator must be applied separately to each group of tuples. Use sorting or hashing on the group attributes to partition the file into the appropriate groups; Computes the aggregate function for the tuples in each group. What if we have Clustering index on the grouping attributes?

72. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 72 Implementing Aggregate Operations and Outer Joins (3) Implementing Outer Join: Outer Join Operators: LEFT OUTER JOIN RIGHT OUTER JOIN FULL OUTER JOIN. The full outer join produces a result which is equivalent to the union of the results of the left and right outer joins. Example: SELECTFNAME, DNAME FROM(EMPLOYEE LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPARTMENT ON DNO = DNUMBER); Note: The result of this query is a table of employee names and their associated departments. It is similar to a regular join result, with the exception that if an employee does not have an associated department, the employee's name will still appear in the resulting table, although the department name would be indicated as null.

73. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 73 Implementing Aggregate Operations and Outer Joins (4) Implementing Outer Join (contd.): Modifying Join Algorithms: Nested Loop or Sort-Merge joins can be modified to implement outer join. E.g., For left outer join, use the left relation as outer relation and construct result from every tuple in the left relation. If there is a match, the concatenated tuple is saved in the result. However, if an outer tuple does not match, then the tuple is still included in the result but is padded with a null value(s).

74. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 74 Implementing Aggregate Operations and Outer Joins (5) Implementing Outer Join (contd.): Executing a combination of relational algebra operators. Implement the previous left outer join example {Compute the JOIN of the EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT tables} TEMP1   FNAME,DNAME (EMPLOYEE DNO=DNUMBER DEPARTMENT) {Find the EMPLOYEEs that do not appear in the JOIN} TEMP2   FNAME (EMPLOYEE) -  FNAME (Temp1) {Pad each tuple in TEMP2 with a null DNAME field} TEMP2  TEMP2 x 'null' {UNION the temporary tables to produce the LEFT OUTER JOIN} RESULT  TEMP1 υ TEMP2 The cost of the outer join, as computed above, would include the cost of the associated steps (i.e., join, projections and union).

75. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 75 6. Combining Operations using Pipelining (1) Motivation A query is mapped into a sequence of operations. Each execution of an operation produces a temporary result. Generating and saving temporary files on disk is time consuming and expensive. Alternative: Avoid constructing temporary results as much as possible. Pipeline the data through multiple operations - pass the result of a previous operator to the next without waiting to complete the previous operation.

76. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 76 Combining Operations using Pipelining (2) Example: For a 2-way join, combine the 2 selections on the input and one projection on the output with the Join. Dynamic generation of code to allow for multiple operations to be pipelined. Results of a select operation are fed in a "Pipeline" to the join algorithm. Also known as stream-based processing.

77. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 77 7. Using Heuristics in Query Optimization(1) Process for heuristics optimization 1.The parser of a high-level query generates an initial internal representation; 2.Apply heuristics rules to optimize the internal representation. 3.A query execution plan is generated to execute groups of operations based on the access paths available on the files involved in the query. The main heuristic is to apply first the operations that reduce the size of intermediate results. E.g., Apply SELECT and PROJECT operations before applying the JOIN or other binary operations.

78. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 78 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (2) Query tree: A tree data structure that corresponds to a relational algebra expression. It represents the input relations of the query as leaf nodes of the tree, and represents the relational algebra operations as internal nodes. An execution of the query tree consists of executing an internal node operation whenever its operands are available and then replacing that internal node by the relation that results from executing the operation. Query graph: A graph data structure that corresponds to a relational calculus expression. It does not indicate an order on which operations to perform first. There is only a single graph corresponding to each query.

79. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 79 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (3) Example: For every project located in ‘Stafford’, retrieve the project number, the controlling department number and the department manager’s last name, address and birthdate. Relation algebra:  PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, ADDRESS, BDATE (((  PLOCATION=‘STAFFORD’ (PROJECT)) DNUM=DNUMBER (DEPARTMENT)) MGRSSN=SSN (EMPLOYEE)) SQL query: Q2: SELECT P.NUMBER,P.DNUM,E.LNAME, E.ADDRESS, E.BDATE FROMPROJECT AS P,DEPARTMENT AS D, EMPLOYEE AS E WHERE P.DNUM=D.DNUMBER AND D.MGRSSN=E.SSN AND P.PLOCATION=‘STAFFORD’;

80. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 80 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (4)

81. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Input relations Internal nodes are - Executed when inputs are ready - Replaced by results Internal nodes

82. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Different representation for the same algebra expression … assumed to be the initial form There are many trees for the same query - strict order among their operations - Query optimization must find “best” order

83. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 83 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (5)

84. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 84 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (6) Heuristic Optimization of Query Trees: The same query could correspond to many different relational algebra expressions — and hence many different query trees. The task of heuristic optimization of query trees is to find a final query tree that is efficient to execute. Example: Q: SELECT LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT WHERE PNAME = ‘AQUARIUS’ AND PNMUBER=PNO AND ESSN=SSN AND BDATE > ‘1957-12-31’;

85. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristics in Query Optimization The main heuristic is to first apply the operations that reduce the size of intermediate results E.g., Apply SELECT and PROJECT operations before applying the JOIN or other binary operations General heuristic optimization Algorithm 1- Push selections down 2- Apply more restrictive selections first Selectivity estimated by DBMS 3- Combine cross products and selections to become joins 4- Push projections down

86. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Steps in converting a query tree during heuristic optimization (a) Initial query tree for the SQL query made by parser 1-Push selections down 2-Apply more restrictive selections first -e.g. equalities before range queries 3-Combine cross products and selections to become joins 4-Push projections down

87. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 87 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (7)

88. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 88 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (8)

89. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 89 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (9) General Transformation Rules for Relational Algebra Operations: 1. Cascade of  : A conjunctive selection condition can be broken up into a cascade (sequence) of individual  operations:  c1 AND c2 AND... AND cn (R) =  c1 (  c2 (...(  cn (R))...) ) 2. Commutativity of  : The  operation is commutative:  c1 (  c2 (R)) =  c2 (  c1 (R)) 3. Cascade of  : In a cascade (sequence) of  operations, all but the last one can be ignored:  List1 (  List2 (...(  Listn (R))...) ) =  List1 (R) 4. Commuting  with  : If the selection condition c involves only the attributes A1,..., An in the projection list, the two operations can be commuted:  A1, A2,..., An (  c (R)) =  c (  A1, A2,..., An (R))

90. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 90 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (10) General Transformation Rules for Relational Algebra Operations (contd.): 5. Commutativity of ( and x ): The operation is commutative as is the x operation: R C S = S C R; R x S = S x R 6. Commuting  with (or x ): If all the attributes in the selection condition c involve only the attributes of one of the relations being joined—say, R—the two operations can be commuted as follows:  c ( R S ) = (  c (R)) S Alternatively, if the selection condition c can be written as (c1 and c2), where condition c1 involves only the attributes of R and condition c2 involves only the attributes of S, the operations commute as follows:  c ( R S ) = (  c1 (R)) (  c2 (S))

91. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 91 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (11) General Transformation Rules for Relational Algebra Operations (contd.): 7. Commuting  with (or x): Suppose that the projection list is L = {A1,..., An, B1,..., Bm}, where A1,..., An are attributes of R and B1,..., Bm are attributes of S. If the join condition c involves only attributes in L, the two operations can be commuted as follows:  L ( R C S ) = (  A1,..., An (R)) C (  B1,..., Bm (S)) If the join condition C contains additional attributes not in L, these must be added to the projection list, and a final  operation is needed.

92. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 92 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (12) General Transformation Rules for Relational Algebra Operations (contd.): 8. Commutativity of set operations: The set operations υ and ∩ are commutative but “–” is not. 9. Associativity of, x, υ, and ∩ : These four operations are individually associative; that is, if  stands for any one of these four operations (throughout the expression), we have ( R  S )  T = R  ( S  T ) 10. Commuting  with set operations: The  operation commutes with υ, ∩, and –. If  stands for any one of these three operations, we have  c ( R  S ) = (  c (R))  (  c (S))

93. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 93 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (13) General Transformation Rules for Relational Algebra Operations (contd.): The  operation commutes with υ.  L ( R υ S ) = (  L (R)) υ (  L (S)) Converting a ( , x) sequence into : If the condition c of a  that follows a x Corresponds to a join condition, convert the ( , x) sequence into a as follows: (  C (R x S)) = (R C S) Other transformations

94. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 94 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (14) Outline of a Heuristic Algebraic Optimization Algorithm: 1.Using rule 1, break up any select operations with conjunctive conditions into a cascade of select operations. 2.Using rules 2, 4, 6, and 10 concerning the commutativity of select with other operations, move each select operation as far down the query tree as is permitted by the attributes involved in the select condition. 3.Using rule 9 concerning associativity of binary operations, rearrange the leaf nodes of the tree so that the leaf node relations with the most restrictive select operations are executed first in the query tree representation. 4.Using Rule 12, combine a Cartesian product operation with a subsequent select operation in the tree into a join operation. 5.Using rules 3, 4, 7, and 11 concerning the cascading of project and the commuting of project with other operations, break down and move lists of projection attributes down the tree as far as possible by creating new project operations as needed. 6.Identify subtrees that represent groups of operations that can be executed by a single algorithm.

95. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristic Optimization Example “What are the ticket numbers of the pilots flying to France on 01-01-06?” SELECT p.ticketno FROM Flight f, Passenger p, Crew c WHEREf.flightNo = p.flightNo AND f.flightNo = c.flightNo AND f.date = ’01-01-06’ AND f.to = ’FRA’ AND p.name = c.name AND c.job = ’Pilot’ Canonical Relational Algebra Expression

96. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristic Optimization (Step 1)

97. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristic Optimization (Step 2)

98. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristic Optimization (Step 3)

99. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristic Optimization (Step 4)

100. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristic Optimization (Step 5)

101. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Heuristic Optimization (Step 6)

102. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 102 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (15) Summary of Heuristics for Algebraic Optimization: 1.The main heuristic is to apply first the operations that reduce the size of intermediate results. 2.Perform select operations as early as possible to reduce the number of tuples and perform project operations as early as possible to reduce the number of attributes. (This is done by moving select and project operations as far down the tree as possible.) 3.The select and join operations that are most restrictive should be executed before other similar operations. (This is done by reordering the leaf nodes of the tree among themselves and adjusting the rest of the tree appropriately.)

103. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 103 Using Heuristics in Query Optimization (16) Query Execution Plans An execution plan for a relational algebra query consists of a combination of the relational algebra query tree and information about the access methods to be used for each relation as well as the methods to be used in computing the relational operators stored in the tree. Materialized evaluation: the result of an operation is stored as a temporary relation. Pipelined evaluation: as the result of an operator is produced, it is forwarded to the next operator in sequence.

104. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 104 8. Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (1) Cost-based query optimization: Estimate and compare the costs of executing a query using different execution strategies and choose the strategy with the lowest cost estimate. (Compare to heuristic query optimization) Issues Cost function Number of execution strategies to be considered

105. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Cost Components for Query Execution Access cost to secondary storage Searching, reading, writing, updating, etc … Memory usage cost Number of memory buffers needed for the query Storage cost Storing any intermediate files that are generated by an execution strategy for the query Communication cost Shipping the results from the database site to the user ’ s site Computation cost Of performing in-memory operations on the data buffers during the execution plan (searching, sorting, joining, arithmetic) Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization

106. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 106 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (2) Cost Components for Query Execution 1.Access cost to secondary storage 2.Storage cost 3.Computation cost 4.Memory usage cost 5.Communication cost Note: Different database systems may focus on different cost components.

107. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 107 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (3) Catalog Information Used in Cost Functions Information about the size of a file number of records (tuples) (r), record size (R), number of blocks (b) blocking factor (bfr) Information about indexes and indexing attributes of a file Number of levels (x) of each multilevel index Number of first-level index blocks (bI1) Number of distinct values (d) of an attribute Selectivity (sl) of an attribute = 1/d fraction of records satisfied an equality condition of records Selection cardinality (s) of an attribute. (s = sl * r) the no of records that will satisfy an equality of selection condition

108. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 108 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (4) Examples of Cost Functions for SELECT S1. Linear search (brute force) approach C S1a = b; For an equality condition on a key, C S1a = (b/2) if the record is found; otherwise C S1a = b. S2. Binary search: C S2 = log 2 b + (s/bfr)  –1 For an equality condition on a unique (key) attribute, C S2 =log 2 b S3. Using a primary index (S3a) to retrieve a single record C S3a = x + 1;

109. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 109 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (5) Examples of Cost Functions for SELECT (contd.) S4. Using an ordering index to retrieve multiple records: For the comparison condition on a key field with an ordering index, C S4 = x + (b/2) S5. Using a clustering index to retrieve multiple records: C S5 = x + ┌ (s/bfr) ┐ S6. Using a secondary (B+-tree) index: For an equality comparison, C S6a = x + s; For an comparison condition such as >, =, or <=, C S6b = x + (b I1 /2) + (r/2)

110. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 110 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (6) Examples of Cost Functions for SELECT (contd.) S7. Conjunctive selection: Use either S1 or one of the methods S2 to S6 to solve. For the latter case, use one condition to retrieve the records and then check in the memory buffer whether each retrieved record satisfies the remaining conditions in the conjunction. S8. Conjunctive selection using a composite index: Same as S3a, S5 or S6a, depending on the type of index. Examples of using the cost functions.

111. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 111 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (6) Suppose that the EMPLOYEE has rE = 10000 records Stored on bE 2000 disk blocks with blocking factor bfrE=5 records/block 1- cluster index on Salary with levels Xsalary=3 and average selection cardinality Ssalary=20 2- A secondary access on the Key attribute Ssn with Xssn=4 3- A secondary access on the non Key attribute Dno with Xdno=2 and the first level index blocks bI1dno=4 there are ddno= 125 and Sdno=rE/ddno=80 4- A secondary access on Sex, with Xsex=1 there are dsex=2 so Ssex=5000

112. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 112 Examples: (OP1):  SSN='123456789' (EMPLOYEE) (OP2):  DNUMBER>5 (EMPLOYEE) (OP3):  DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE) For op1 we can use S1a or S6a Cs1a= bE/2=2000/2=1000 S6a=Xssn+1=4+1=5 For op2 we can use S1a or S6b Cs1a= bE=2000 C S6b = x + (b I1 /2) + (r/2) =2+4/2+10000/2=5004 For op3 we can use S1a or S6a Cs1a= bE=2000 S6a= x + s =2+80=82 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (6)

113. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 113 OP4: σDno=5 AND SALARY>30000 AND Sex=‘F’(EMPLOYEE) CS1a = 2000. Using the condition (Dno = 5) first gives the cost estimate CS6a = 82. Using the condition (Salary > 30,000) first gives a cost estimate CS4 = xSalary + (bE/2)= 3 + (2000/2) = 1003. Using the condition (Sex = ‘F’) first gives a cost estimate CS6a= xSex + sSex = 1 + 5000 = 5001. The optimizer would then choose method S6a on the secondary index on Dno because it has the lowest cost estimate. The condition (Dno = 5) is used to retrieve the records, and the remaining part of the conjunctive condition (Salary > 30,000 AND Sex = ‘F’) is checked for each selected record after it Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (6)

114. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 114 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (7) Examples of Cost Functions for JOIN Join selectivity (js) js = | (R C S) | / | R x S | = | (R C S) | / (|R| * |S |) If condition C does not exist, js = 1; If no tuples from the relations satisfy condition C, js = 0; Usually, 0 <= js <= 1; Size of the result file after join operation | (R C S) | = js * |R| * |S |

115. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 115 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (8) Examples of Cost Functions for JOIN (contd.) J1. Nested-loop join: C J1 = b R + (b R *b S ) + ((js* |R|* |S|)/bfr RS ) (Use R for outer loop) J2. Single-loop join (using an access structure to retrieve the matching record(s)) If an index exists for the join attribute B of S with index levels x B, we can retrieve each record s in R and then use the index to retrieve all the matching records t from S that satisfy t[B] = s[A]. The cost depends on the type of index.

116. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 116 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (9) Examples of Cost Functions for JOIN (contd.) J2. Single-loop join (contd.) For a secondary index, C J2a = b R + (|R| * (x B + s B )) + ((js* |R|* |S|)/bfr RS ); For a clustering index, C J2b = b R + (|R| * (x B + (s B /bfr B ))) + ((js* |R|* |S|)/bfr RS ); For a primary index, C J2c = b R + (|R| * (x B + 1)) + ((js* |R|* |S|)/bfr RS ); J3. Sort-merge join: C J3a = C S + b R + b S + ((js* |R|* |S|)/bfr RS ); (CS: Cost for sorting files)

117. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 117 Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization (10) Multiple Relation Queries and Join Ordering A query joining n relations will have n-1 join operations, and hence can have a large number of different join orders when we apply the algebraic transformation rules. Current query optimizers typically limit the structure of a (join) query tree to that of left-deep (or right-deep) trees. Left-deep tree: A binary tree where the right child of each non-leaf node is always a base relation. Amenable to pipelining Could utilize any access paths on the base relation (the right child) when executing the join.

118. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 118 9. Overview of Query Optimization in Oracle Oracle DBMS V8 Rule-based query optimization: the optimizer chooses execution plans based on heuristically ranked operations. (Currently it is being phased out) Cost-based query optimization: the optimizer examines alternative access paths and operator algorithms and chooses the execution plan with lowest estimate cost. The query cost is calculated based on the estimated usage of resources such as I/O, CPU and memory needed. Application developers could specify hints to the ORACLE query optimizer. The idea is that an application developer might know more information about the data.

119. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 119 10. Semantic Query Optimization Semantic Query Optimization: Uses constraints specified on the database schema in order to modify one query into another query that is more efficient to execute. Consider the following SQL query, SELECTE.LNAME, M.LNAME FROMEMPLOYEE E M WHEREE.SUPERSSN=M.SSN AND E.SALARY>M.SALARY Explanation: Suppose that we had a constraint on the database schema that stated that no employee can earn more than his or her direct supervisor. If the semantic query optimizer checks for the existence of this constraint, it need not execute the query at all because it knows that the result of the query will be empty. Techniques known as theorem proving can be used for this purpose.

120. Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 15- 120 Summary 0. Introduction to Query Processing 1. Translating SQL Queries into Relational Algebra 2. Algorithms for External Sorting 3. Algorithms for SELECT and JOIN Operations 4. Algorithms for PROJECT and SET Operations 5. Implementing Aggregate Operations and Outer Joins 6. Combining Operations using Pipelining 7. Using Heuristics in Query Optimization 8. Using Selectivity and Cost Estimates in Query Optimization 9. Overview of Query Optimization in Oracle 10. Semantic Query Optimization