1. Executing Parallel Programs with Potential Bottlenecks Efficiently University of Tokyo Yoshihiro Oyama Kenjiro Taura (visiting UCSD) Akinori Yonezawa

2. Programs We Consider bottleneck object (e.g., counter) exclusive method exclusive method exclusive method exclusive method …….. Context: Implementation of concurrent OO langs on SMPs and DSM machines e.g., synchronized methods in Java update! programs updating shared data frequently with mutex operations

3. Amdahl’s Law int foo(…) { int x = 0, y = 0; parallel for (…) {... } lock(); printf(…); unlock(); parallel for (…) { c[i]=0; } parallel for (…) { baz(5); } return x * 2 + y; } int foo(…) { int x = 0, y = 0; parallel for (…) {... } lock(); printf(…); unlock(); parallel for (…) { c[i]=0; } parallel for (…) { baz(5); } return x * 2 + y; } 90% → can execute in parallel 10% → must execute sequentially (bottleneck) 10 times speedup, at most Can you really gain 10 times speedup??? but... You expect 10 times speedup

4. Speedup Curves for Programs with Bottlenecks # of PEs time ideal real “Excessive” processors may be used! ∵ It is difficult to predict dynamic behavior ∵ Different phases need different num. of PEs

5. Preliminary Experiments using a Simple Counter Program in C Solaris threads & Ultra Enterprise 10000 Each processor increments a shared counter in parallel The time didn’t remain constant, but increases dramatically.

6. Goal Efficient execution of programs with bottlenecks –Focusing on synchronization of methods time to execute a whole program in parallel time to execute only bottlenecks sequentially making closer other parts 1PE bottleneck parts other parts 50PE bottleneck parts

7. What Problem Should We Solve? 1PE 50PE other parts bottleneck parts ideal implementation Stop the increase of the time consumed in bottlenecks! other parts bottleneck parts bottleneck parts other parts naïve implementation

8. Put it in Prof. Ito’s terminology! He aims at keeping: –the PP/M ≧ SP/S property Our work aims at keeping: –the PP/M ≧ PP/S property Performance on 100 PE should be higher than that on 1 PE!

9. Presentation Overview Examples of potential bottlenecks Two naïve schemes and their problems –Local-based execution –Owner-based execution Our scheme –Detachment of requests –Priority mechanism using compare-and-swap –Two compile-time optimizations Performance evaluation & Related work

10. Examples of Potential Bottleneck Objects Objects introduced to easily reuse MT-unsafe functions in MT env. Abstract I/O objects Stubs in distributed systems –One stub conducts all communications in a site Shared global variables –e.g., counters to collect statistics information It is sometimes difficult to eliminate them.

12. Local-based Execution (e.g., Implementation with Spin-locks) instance variables method Advantage: No need to move “computation” Disadvantage: Cache misses when referencing an object (due to invalidation/update of cache by other processors) object method Each PE executes methods by itself ↓ Each PE references/updates an object by itself

13. Confirmation of Overhead in Local-based Execution C program on Ultra Enterprise 10000 Overhead of referencing/updating an object increases according to the increase of PEs occupies 1/3 of whole exec. time on 60 PEs

14. Owner-based Execution a request (a data structure containing method info) object owner non-owners owner = a processor holding an object’s lock currently owner present → creates and inserts a request owner absent → becomes an owner and executes a method =

15. Owner-based Execution with Simple Blocking Locks object instance variables Dequeued one by one with aux. locks One processor likely executes multiple methods consecutively

16. Advantages/Disadvantages of Owner-based Execution Advantage: Disadvantages: Less cache misses to reference an object Overhead to move “computation” Synchronization operations for a queue Waiting time to manipulate a queue Cache misses to read requests (focusing on owner’s execution, which typically gives a critical path) Can they be reduced?

18. Overview of Our Scheme Improve simple blocking locks –Detach requests Reduce the frequency of mutex operations –Give high priority to owner Reduce the time required to take control of requests –Prefetch requests Reduce cache misses in reading requests Our scheme is realized implicitly by a compiler and runtime of a concurrent object-oriented language Schematic

19. Data Structures Requests are managed with a list –1-word pointer area (lock area) is added to each object –Non-owner ： creates and inserts a request –Owner ： picks requests out and execute them object

20. Design Policy Owner’s behavior determines a critical path We make owner’s execution fast, above all We allow non-owners’ execution to be slow Battle in Bottleneck: 1 owner vs. 99 non-owners We should help him!

21. Non-owners Inserting a Request BC object A YZX

22. Non-owners Inserting a Request BC object A YZX Update with compare-and-swap Retry if interrupted

23. Non-owners Inserting a Request BC object A YZX Update with compare-and-swap Retry if interrupted ♪ Non-owners repeat the loop until success

24. Y Owner Detaching Requests BC object A Important A whole list is detached Update with swap always succeeds → owner is never interrupted by other processors

25. Y Owner Detaching Requests BC object A Important A whole list is detached Update with swap always succeeds → owner is never interrupted by other processors ♪

26. Owner Executing Requests YBC object A 1. No synchronization operations by owner inserting requests without disturbing owner ZX executed in turn without mutex ops

27. Giving Higher Priority to Owner Insertion by non-owner ( compare-and-swap ): may fail many times Detachment by owner ( swap ): always succeeds in constant steps 2. Owner never spins to manipulate requests

28. Compile-time Optimization (1/2) Prefetch requests while this request is processed the request is prefetched 3. Reduce cache misses to read requests... while (req != NULL) { PREFETCH(req->next); EXECUTE(req); req = req->next; }... while (req != NULL) { PREFETCH(req->next); EXECUTE(req); req = req->next; }...

29. Compile-time Optimization (2/2) Caching instance variables in registers –Non-owners do not reference/update an object while detached requests are processed passing IVs in registers Two versions of code are provided for one method Code to process requests ： uses instance variables on memory Code to execute methods directly ： uses instance variables in registers object

30. Achieving Similar Effects in Low-level Languages (e.g., in C) “Always spin-lock” approach –Waste of CPU cycles, memory bandwidth –Deadlocks “Finding bottlenecks→rewriting code” approach –Implements owner-based execution only in bottlenecks –Harder than “support of high-level lang” approach Implementing owner-based execution is troublesome Bottlenecks appear dynamically in some programs

32. Experimental Results (1/2)

33. Experimental Results (2/2)

34. Interesting Results using a Simple Counter Program in C Simple blocking locks ： waiting time was the largest overhead –70 % of owner’s whole execution time Our scheme is efficient also on uniprocessor –Spin-locks: 641 msec –Simple blocking locks: 1025 msec –Our scheme: 810 msec (execution time)

35. Related Work (1/3) - execution of methods invoked in parallel - ICC++ [Chien et al. 96] –Detects nonexclusive methods through static analysis Concurrent Aggregates [Chien 91] –Realizes interleaving through explicit programming Cooperative Technique [Barnes 93] –PE entering critical section later “helps” predecessors Focus on exposing parallelism among nonexclusive operations No remark on performance loss in bottlenecks

36. Related Work (2/3) - efficient spin-locks when contention occurs - MCS Lock [Mellor-Crummey et al. 91] –Provides spin area for each processor Exponential Backoff [Anderson 90] –Is heuristics to “withdraw” processors which failed in lock acquisition –Needs some skills to determine parameters These locks give local-based execution → Low locality in referencing bottleneck objects

37. Related Work (3/3) - efficient Java monitors - Bimodal object-locking [Onodera et al. 98], Thin Locks [Bacon et al. 98] –Affected our low-level implementation –Uses unoptimized “fat locks” in contended objects Meta-locks [Agesen et al. 99] –Clever technique similar to MCS locks –No busy-waiting even in contended objects Their primary concern lies on uncontended cases They do not take locality of object references into account

38. Summary Serious performance loss in existing schemes –spin-locks: low locality of object references –blocking locks: overhead in contended request queue Very fast execution in contended objects –Highly-optimized owner-based execution Excellent Performance –Several times faster than simple schemes! (several hundred percent speedup!)

39. Future Work Solving a problem to use large memory in some cases –A long list of requests may be formed –The problem is common to owner-based schemes –This work focused on time-efficiency, not on space-efficiency –Simple solution: memory used for requests ≧ some threshold ⇒ dynamic switch to local-based execution Increasing/decreasing PEs according to exec. status –System automatically decides the “best” number of PEs for each program point –It eliminates the existence of excessive processors itself

40. ここからは質問タイムに 見せるスライド

41. More Detailed Measurements using a Counter Program in C Solaris threads & Sun Ultra Enterprise 10000 Each processor increments a shared counter

42. No guarantee of FIFO order The method invoked later may be executed earlier –Simple solution: “reverse” detached requests –Better solution: Can we use a queue, instead of list? Are 64bit compare-and-swap/swap necessary?