1. Written Language Written expression, spelling, and handwriting

2. Writing is the most sophisticated and complex achievement of the language system. Through writing, we integrate previous learnings and experiences in speaking, listening, and reading.

3. Why is writing a complex process? The writer must be able to keep one idea in mind while formulating it in words and sentences The writer must be skilled in planning the correct graphic form of each letter and word while manipulating the pen/pencil. The writer must possess sufficient visual and motor memory to integrate complex hand-eye relationships.

4. Principles for Teaching the Writing Process 1.During the “pre-writing stage,” the writing process requires much time, input, and attention Writers need something to write about Writers need sufficient prior experiences to create and stimulate ideas for a good written product 2.The writing process frees students from undue concentration on the mechanics of writing.

5. ... continued Helps students not worry about mistakes until after the ideas are planned Content now; “clean up” later 3.The writing process helps students revise their work. The first draft is a “stage” and not a finished product; revising helps students realize the importance of the process 4.Avoid excessive corrections of students’ work; it can be discouraging during the “ideas” stage

6. Strategies for Writing Written conversations (do all communication in writing) Personal journals—a safe place to record ideas; record of personal events or experiences Graphic Organizers—these are visual displays that organize and structure ideas and concepts. They help in comprehending information, acquiring new vocabulary, generating ideas.

7. Stages of Spelling (a developmental process) Stage 1. Developing “Prephonetic” Writing (ages 1-7) Scribble, draw, imitate writing, and learn to make letters Stage 2. Using letter names and “early phonetic” strategies (ages 5-9) Attempt to use phoneme (sound) representations, but have limited knowledge; they use “invented spelling” Example: “TRKE” for “turkey” Stage 3. Using written word patterns (ages 6-12) Spelling attempts are readable, pronounceable, and recognizable They are nearer conventional spelling, though not precise Example: “offis” for “office”

8. ... continued Stage 4. Using syllable junctures and multi-syllabic words (ages 8-18) Errors may occur in multi-syllabic words The errors often occur at syllable junctures (where the different syllables meet) In phonics, this is the “schwa” position. Examples: “useage” for “usage”; “cottin” for “cotton” Stage 5. Mature Spelling Perspective (ages 10-adult) Invented spellings are now viewed as errors Many individuals must continue to rely on dictionaries, word processors.

9. Handwriting Three different ways to produce writing are currently taught: manuscript, cursive, and keyboarding. Handwriting is the most concrete of communication skills. Extremely poor handwriting is sometimes called dysgraphia, which is a manifestation of fine-motor difficulties.

10. Handwriting... Cont’d Printing (manuscript writing): (K-3) - easy to learn (straight lines and circles) - closer to printed form in texts - many children with LDs prefer this style

11. ... continued Cursive writing (also called script) - typically learned in 3rd grade - letters are connected - minimizes spatial judgment problems - has rhythmic continuity and wholeness - reversals are eliminated

12. ... continued Keyboarding skills - rapidly becoming a survival skill - offers a welcome and feasible solution to handwriting (fine motor and spatial) problems - motorically easier; output is more legible - once mastered, is faster - learning requires regular direct instruction

13. Strategies for Teaching Written Expression 1.Provide opportunities for sustained writing. Sufficient time to think, reflect, write, and rewrite as needed Recommendation of 15 minutes per day, 4 days per week. 2.Allow students to have some choice regarding their topics. Projects are more successful when students have a personal interest in them. 3.Model the writing process and strategic thinking. (think aloud samples)

14. Strategies cont’d 4.Avoid punitive grades On some assignments, only mark ideas, not technical errors. 5.Provide abundant input Help students with writing ideas through oral discussion. 6.Differentiate between personal and functional writing Different purposes /end goals require different skills

15. Strategies Cont’d 7.Schedule frequent writing Practice makes perfect 8.Using the ‘cloze’ procedure Can help writing, esp. synonyms as well as develop skills in using context clues. 9.Combining sentences Combining many simple sentences into one compound or complex sentence.