1. Psychology of Music Learning Miksza Motivation

2. Asmus (1994) Motivation provides energy for seeking out and being involved in tasks –Arouse interest –Influence choice, direction, goals –Starting, sustaining, and/or stopping behavior 11% to 17% of variance in achievement explained by motivation –Important because it can be manipulated by the teacher

3. Asmus (1994) Extrinsic sources (tends to be behavioral) –Reinforcement –Environment –Social sources Approval, disapproval, tokens, rewards, etc. –Disadvantages Unlikely to choose similar activities without extrinsic rewards Don’t pursue activities outside of class Inhibit the development of intrinsic orientation May lead to negative performance outcomes in the long- term

4. Asmus (1994) Intrinsic Sources (tends to be cognitive) –Internal decisions and energy –Engaged in ‘for their own sake’ –Advantageous Persist even when external sources aren’t available Higher self-concept See Weiner (1986) quote - anti-behaviorist approach Contrast Weiner with Deci & Ryan (1985) - using extrinsic to ‘stoke’ intrinsic

5. Asmus (1994) Maximizing extrinsic motivation –Only use rewards when necessary –Don’t reward a learner for an inherently interesting task –Limit use of rewards for behavioral control and participation –Avoid rewards with divergent tasks –Use rewards for acknowledging competence –Use rewards for memorization and convergent tasks

6. Contemporary intrinsic/extrinsic approaches Elliot - Achievement goal orientations –Performance goals (aka - ego) Norm-referenced achievement orientations –Mastery goals (aka - task) Self-referential achievement orientations –Approach and Avoid ‘valence’ –Highest achievers tend to have strong mastery- AND performance-approach orientations –Learner traits… Approach - help-seeking, organized Avoid - disorganized, anxiety, avoidance, avoid help- seeking

7. Asmus (1994) Self-concept/self-esteem –Achievement and success enhance self-concept –Failure may also have constructive effects on self- concept if: The goals, conditions, assessment, and attributions are appropriate Especially if the learner is intrinsically motivated to pursue the task in the first place –More control over the task the learner has the stronger effect on self-concept –See Vispoel (1994)

8. Vispoel (1994) Self-concept has been poorly defined over time - especially in music Self-concept is: –Organized, multi-faceted, hierarchical, stable, complexity changes with age, descriptive and evaluative, distinct from other constructs like achievement and intelligence Music self-concept correlated with general artistic self-concept and verbal-academic self-concept Music self-concept is also hierarchically structured Music self-concept may differentiate by instrumental vs. non-instrumental

9. Self-concept in music… Positive self-concept related to achievement in music Music participation related to positive general self- concept –Results mixed for minority and disadvantaged students Pre-service practice teaching experiences lead to enhanced teacher self-concept Self-concept increased as result of participation in contest Consistent correlation between music self-concept and magnitude of motivation

10. Asmus (1994) Maslow - Drive Theory –Meet needs… see hierarchy from last week… Atkinson - Achievement Theory –Approach success Interaction of previous successes, motive to achieve, expectancy of success, and perceived value of success Optimal level: perceived difficulty and expectancy of success is intermediate –Avoid failure Ring toss experiment… Protect self-perception - choose task that’s too easy or too difficult to explain away failures…

11. Asmus (1994) Rotter - Locus of Control –Internal and external reasons for future successes and failures Internal: ability, effort External: luck, powerful others Weiner - Attribution Theory –Perceived causes of past successes and failures Internal/External, Stable/Unstable, Controllable/Uncontrollable

12. Attribution theory in music… Effort and ability most commonly cited by younger students Attributions tend to become more stable with age Task difficulty more commonly cited by older students Attributions somewhat distinct from magnitude of motivation Those with high magnitude tend to cite effort more often Asmus motivational factors –Effort –Background –Classroom environment –Musical ability –Affect for music

13. Asmus (1994) Bandura - Self-efficacy –‘a person’s beliefs in ability to produce intended outcomes on a specific task’ Effect: choice of activity, effort, persistence Deci & Ryan - Self-determination –Sense of control enhances intrinsic motivation –Satisfying an inherent need to be competent and self-determining

14. Asmus (1994) Common motivational topics in music education literature –Nature of musical materials –Music as a reinforcer –Classroom environment –Competition –Teaching strategies –Teacher characteristics

15. McPherson & Zimmerman (2002) Self-regulation –From a social-cognitive perspective… Interaction of individual, environment, and behavior (reciprocal casuation/determinism) –Dimensions Motive - why Strategies - how Time management - when Performance behavior - what Social elements, help - with whom

16. McPherson & Zimmerman (2002) Motivation –Parental support, self-motivation Strategies –Task-oriented, alone vs. with help of a teacher, mental strategies Time management –Efficiency, avoidance, use of time Behavior –Metacognition, problem solving, self-evaluation, adaptive mastery-oriented or maladaptive performance-oriented, physical environment Social elements –Parents, teachers, siblings and peers

17. McPherson & Zimmerman (2002) Stages of self-regulation –Observation Learning from a model –Emulation Imitation of a model, imitation with social assistance –Self-control Independent display of model’s skills under structured conditions –Self-regulation Adaptive use of skill across changing personal and environmental conditions