1. Research Methods
Unit 2

2. Hindsight Bias “I knew it all along phenomenon” Example: 9/11
Overconfidence along with hindsight bias
Can lead to overestimate our institution

3. The Scientific Attitude
Curiosity, skepticism, and humility
Copernicus and Newton—religious convictions made them humble before nature and skeptical of human authority

4. Critical Thinking Examines assumptions Discerns hidden values
Evaluates evidence
Assesses conclusions

5. The Scientific Method Theory-predicts behavior or events
At theory simplifies, organizes isolated facts
Hypothesis-a good theory that produces testable predictions
Operational definitions-describes concepts with precise measures
Replication is key

6. The Scientific Method
Test by using descriptive methods, correlational methods, and experimental methods

7. Operational Definition
It defines what the researcher will be observing and manipulating
Need to be 1) measurable and 2) manageable
If not measurable or manageable then the research will be difficult to conduct

8. Description Case study Survey Naturalistic observation
Examines one individual in depth
Can mislead us if individual is atypical
Survey
Many cases in less depth
Wording effects, Random sampling
Need representative sample of cases
Naturalistic observation
Only describes behavior does not explain it
Replication is the main goal of all research

9. Survey
People are asked to RESPOND to a series of QUESTIONS about a particular subject
Does it matter what order the questions are asked?

10. Survey: Target Population
The WHOLE GROUP that you want to study
EXAMPLES
-US sigh school students
-Westinghouse high school students
-Olympic athletes
-Chicago Firefighters

11. Survey: Random sampling
Individuals are selected by RANDOM from the target population
Methods of Selecting->>>>

12. Survey: Stratified Sample
SUBGROUPS in the population are represented proportionately in the sample
Other Examples:
Election data
Strike support

13. Survey: Volunteer Bias
People who CHOOSE (volunteer) to participate in research studies often DIFFER from people who do not
Examples:
PETA

14. Case Study
An IN DEPTH investigation of an INDIVIDUAL or small group

15. Case Study: Longitudinal Method
Researchers select a group of participants and then observer them OVER A LONG PERIOD
Ex: Harvard males study. Started when they were 20 and still going today (my prof is 80)

16. Naturalistic Observation
Observing people or animals in the “field” in their NATURAL HABITATS

17. Laboratory Observation Method
Observation of behavior in a LAB rather than in the FIELD

18. Correlation
A measure of how closely one thing is RELATED to another

19. Correlation
A measure of how two factors vary together
Scatterplot

20. Positive Correlation
A relationship between variables in which one variable GOES UP as the GOES UP (increases)
*Direct
Ex: People who have a greater need to achieve, earn more money
(not always, but often)

21. Negative Correlation
Two variables in which one variable GOES UP the other GOES DOWN
Inverse

22. Practice: Positive, Negative, or None
Brushing teeth and No cavities
Wearing Pink and Getting Good Grades
Eating McDonalds and Having high cholesterol
Doing well on the ACT and Graduating College
Laughing a lot and having strong stomach muscles
Chewing gum and being anxious
Being mean and having lots of friends

23. Correlation and Causation
Correlation DOES NOT mean causation
Ex: low self-esteem causes depression
Correlation indicates the POSSIBILITY of a cause-effect relationship
Doesn’t prove anything

24. Correlation coefficient
A relationship between two things (-1 to +1)
The number represents the strength or weakness
The sign represents the direction of the correlation
Practice: -.70 vs (which is stronger? And which relationship is inverse and which is direct?)

25. Illusory Correlations
When we believe there is a relationship between two thing, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief
I.E. superstitutions
Influenced by confirmation bias: look for evidence that confirms our beliefs

26. Perceiving Order in Random Events
Chance-related explanation
Patterns and streaks occur more often than people expect

27. Experimental Method
Focus on one or more factors by manipulating the factors of interest and holding constant other factors
The method researchers use to answer questions about cause and effect

28. Variables Factors that can vary and change
Ex: temperature of room, option to leave room, how crowded it …

29. Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variable
The factor that researchers MANIPULATE so they can determine its effect
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the factor being MEASURED and that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

30. Independent and dependent variables
Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable, measure the dependent variable, and control confounding variables

31. Confounding Variable
Other factors that can influenced the results of the experiment
Random assignment controls for possible confounding variables

32. Controlled Experiment
When an experiment uses EXPERIMENTAL groups as well as CONTROL groups
Experimental group: in a study, the people that RECEIVE the treatment
Control Group: in a study, the people that DO NOT receive the treatment
Examples: ACT Class, Teeth brushing, Resumes

33. Single Blind Study
Participants do not know if they are receiving the TREATMENT or not. They do not know if they are in the experiment or control group.
Ex.: Experimental group receiving a drug and control group receiving a placebo

34. Placebo Effect
A substance treatment that has NO EFFECT apart from a person’s belief in it
Ex: Receiving a tablet that appears to contain a real drug but that actually has no medicinal value
All patients must participate in some sort of treatment even if it means it is not meaningful
Trusted source: derives a health benefit

35. Random Assignment
An experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect
Double-blind procedure
Placebo effect

36. DOUBLE BLIND STUDY
A study in which both RESEARCHER and PARTICIPANT are unaware of who has obtained the treatment
To reduce researchers bias, influence due to expectations
“Are you SURE your knee doesn’t hurt anymore?”
Ex.: D.B.S. required by the FDA before new drugs can be put on the market

37. Describing Data Measures of central tendency Mode: most frequent
Median: midpoint (50th percentile)
Must arrange in order before finding the middle
Mean: average
Most common
*If all are the same number the graph will look like a normal curve

38. Skewed Data
Mean is most susceptible to extremes in the data (pulled down or up)
Positive skewed: scores pulls the mean toward the higher end
Negative skewed: pull downed toward the lower end

39. Measures of variation Range-provides only a crude estimate
Standard deviation-The most useful

40. Standard Deviation
The higher the standard deviation, the less similar the scores are
Standard deviation and variability
Smaller standard deviation then more stable conclusions

41. Making inferences When an observed difference is reliable…..
Representative sample: not just random sampling. Keep in mind the population
Less-variable observation (less is more)
More cases: averages based on many cases are more reliable

42. Statistical significance
When the sample averages are reliable and when the difference between them is relative large
Not due to chance variation
Psychologists are very conservative when considering statistical significance
Only indicates a likelihood that a result will happen by chance not the importance of the result

43. Statistical significance (practice)
If you graphed the data from two groups and the graphs did not overlap or only overlapped a little then the difference would be ______________?
If the graphs overlapped a lot, then the difference would not be________________.

44. Psychology Applied
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
An experiment’s purpose is not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test theoretical principles
It is the resulting principles-not the specific findings that help explain everyday behaviors

45. Psychology Applied Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Culture matters: awareness is key
Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary by gender or across cultures, the underlying processes are much the same

46. Ethics in Research
Why study animals and is it ok to experiment on them?
We humans are animals: animal experiments have led to treatments for human diseases
Animal protection: replace with naturalistic observation
Well being of humans above that of animals?

47. Ethics in Research How about experimenting on people? Informed consent
Protect from harm or discomfort
Confidentiality: keeping info private
Anonymity: without providing identification info
Debrief on experiment
Universities typically have a ethics committee

48. Ethics in Research Is psychology free of value judgments?
Values affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results
Applications of psychology’s principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity