1. Handbook of Language & Ethnicity Chapter 10: Social Psychology By Karmela Liebkind

2. What Is Ethnicity? Ethnicity is more associated with minority than majority status Objective criteria: biological, geographical, linguistic, cultural, religious –But objective criteria are not so clear and subjective criteria might be MORE important Subjective belief in common ancestry

3. Can Ethnicity Be Changed? YES: people will switch membership and languages if it helps them get jobs, housing, etc. – it can be rationally manipulated NO: people would rather die than betray their group – it is irrational, unquestioned, part of a herd instinct Ethnicity is ascribed because you can only be born into one group, but achieved because you can choose what that group means for your identity

4. Ethnic Identity as Social Identity People understand their place in the world according to social categorization Personal self-image –personal identity –social identity – membership in various groups (preferable ones that we see as favorably distinct Interpersonal behavior and intergroup behavior are different

5. Language Groups in Contact: Alternative Strategies Factors: +/-retention of culture, +/- interaction with majority culture Strategies: –integration: cultural integrity & interaction –assimilation: loss of culture –separation: cultural integrity only –marginalization: loss of culture without interaction

6. Different strategies for different situations A minority can use different strategies for different aspects of life: work, marriage… Integration creates bicultural identity –BUT: some portion of minority identity will be sacrificed, and this could mean language

7. The Social Psychology of Language & Identity What factors make people use another language, lose their language, or maintain it? –When ethnic group identity becomes important for individuals, they may attempt to make themselves favorably distinct on dimensions such as language –If language is a source of shame, they will assimilate and lose language

8. Language and Ethnic Identity “Language interweaves…personal identity with…collective ethnic identity” – What does this mean? –Language is an instrument for naming self and world –Upbringing of a child depends on language –Language is one of the most salient characteristics of ethnic groups

9. Language and Ethnic Identity, cont’d. Integrative attitude toward mother tongue – people identify with a native language and want to maintain that identification Language helps form group identity and group identity influences language use But even if here is a negative attitude toward a majority language, language loss can occur

10. Language Attitudes and Ethnolinguistic Vitality Minorities face socioeconomic need to use majority language What factors condition loss, maintenance, revival of a minority language – including majority’s attitude toward minority language? –Status (economic, political, linguistic prestige) –Demographic strength (#, concentration, birthrates, migration) –Institutional support (media, government, education)

11. Ethnolinguistic Vitality, cont’d. Subjective perception of ethnolinguistic vitality is more important than objective numbers Other factors: –group boundaries –multiple group membership Power of majority group is crucial – they often pursue assimilation policies

12. Language Identity and Speech Accommodation Interpersonal communication (which can also be interpreted as intergroup communication) can involve –speech convergence –speech maintenance –speech divergence Low-status speakers tend to converge more

13. Speech Divergence Divergence maintains identity; What facilitates divergence? –speakers see language as important to group –speakers see possibility for group’s increased status –speakers do not identify with other group –speakers see minority group membership as more important and fixed –speakers believe their group to have high ethnolinguistic vitality But most people have multiple identities and bilingual/bicultural identity is often best

14. Bilingual Communication Code switching is influenced by power and status of the languages involved Feelings of security influence behavior – majority groups tend to feel more secure and are often more positive toward their own group than minority groups are –Insecure dominant groups are more discriminatory, secure subordinate groups are more empowered to assert themselves

15. Second-Language Acquisition A second language can represent either –an alien identity –a mere tool for communication It is hard to find any consistent correlation between identification with a subordinate group and the motivation/success in learning a dominant language Language identity and language use can be very different

16. The Effects of the Ethnic Revival What are two strong opposite trends since WWII? –growth of interdependence –growth of differentiation among groups There are thousands of ethnolinguistic groups, but only 200 (mostly non-homogeneous) nation- states Recent research emphasizes: –Desirability of active bilingualism –Rights of minorities to remain linguistically distinct