1. Structure of the hog industry Many, small operations used to raise hogs from start to finish Hogs were raised where near large supplies of corn. Hog farmers typically fed corn and other farm by-products from their own operation as an inexpensive feed Hogs were sold at local markets for a negotiated price

2. Structure has changed dramatically Rapid transition to large specialized operations Most hogs are raised in buildings, with specialized, environmentally modified facilities. Allows closer watch of animals for nutritional needs and disease prevention Confinement production allows year-round production

3. Hogs are produced in 3 types of specialized enterprises Farrow-to-finish operations –raise hogs from birth to slaughter weight, about 110-125KG (4.5-6 months) Feeder pig producers –raise pigs from birth to 4-28 KG, then generally sell them for finishing. Feeder pig finishers –buy feeder pigs and grow them to slaughter weight.

4. Change to more specialized operations Farrow-to-finish operations were the main type of hog farm in the 1980s Operations have been more specialized, dividing each stage of production Most hogs produced under production or marketing contracts

5. Economies of size drove the change Larger operations can spread fixed costs over more animals Low-cost operations can survive periods of low prices easier than high-cost Contract production allowed farms to specialize and reduce risk Increased capital requirements

6. Contracting has changed the industry Contract production is an arrangement between a pig owner (the contractor) and a producer (the grower) Producer cares for the pig in the producer's facilities. The producer is paid a fee for the service provided. An integrator may have contracts with many growers to produce hogs. Farmers can also be contractors

7. Contracting has changed the industry (continued) Decision making is divided between farmer and contractor Day-to-day management is key to returns to farmers Financial management, acquiring other inputs, allocation of time and management Farmers don’t have a role in other production practices (such as raising feed) and marketing role is limited

8. Why would farmers use contracts? Reduce risk of price swings Stabilize cash flow Share production costs Assure access to market Access to expert advice Expand scale of operation

9. Why would farmers use contracts? Reduce input risk –Assure access to product –Control quality and quantity Diversify operations Ease inventory management problems Establish product identity

10. Contracting allowed the application of technology in new ways Technology applied to each production stage –Automated feeding and watering system reduced costs –Increase pigs per litter and weight per hog –Management systems became more specialized –Advantage of economies of size Location of farms moved to non-traditional areas, led by North Carolina. Other growth areas--Oklahoma, Missouri, and Utah.

11. Large operations means more manure More animals, more manure in one location With higher fertilizer costs, there is a new interest in using manure in the Corn Belt state Hog finishing facilities are directly tied to location of cropland (where the feed is located and where the manure can be spread)

12. Two types of contracts Market contracts-- setting price before delivery Production contracts-- agreement to produce a particular product for a known outlet for a fee Production contracts used more in livestock 68 billion or 36 percent of ag production

13. Production contracts Marketing contracts Breeding/farrowing Nursery Processor Retailer Consumer Feed Mill Finishing Stages of production and the use of contracting

14. Increases in hog contracting occurred quickly ContractingVertical integrationOpen market

15. With contracting, herds got larger On farms with more than 1,000 head –37 percent of swine population in 1987 –47 percent in 1992 –71 percent in 1997 On farms with more than 2,000 head –29 percent in 1992 –55 percent in 1997

16. Why were contracts so popular? Application of new technology More closely coordinated stages of production to meet demand Allowed American to have preferred food year round Contracting assures a given supply and quality at stable prices and better manages risk

17. Contracting changes production Is agriculture going thru stages? –Autonomous, small, wholly owned and operated, self and local markets –Rent or lease resources, cash market –Multiple cooperative agreements, including marketing contracts –Consolidated, highly integrated, complex organization

18. Contracting changes the market Prices not visible Fewer buyers Eliminate stages of transfer (markets) Market risk is exchanged for contract risk