1. Earth Systems Chapter 8

2. Earth history What’s here now has been here all along Layers: ▫Core – solid inner, liquid outer ▫Mantle – made of magma ▫Crust – solid rock

3. Theory of Plate Tectonics ▫Crust is divided into plates which move slowly, carried by convection currents in the magma below ▫Where plates are in contact:  Divergent plate boundaries – moving apart, magma forces its way up  Convergent plate boundaries – moving together, one plate forced under the other  Transform plate boundaries – one plate moving past another ▫Consequences:  Fault zones – pressure between plates  Earthquakes occur when the pressure releases suddenly  ‘Ring of Fire’ – areas where volcanoes are common

6. The rock cycle Igneous rocks – form directly from magma Sedimentary rocks – form from sediments compressed and solidified Metamorphic rocks – either igneous or sedimentary rocks transformed by heat and pressure

8. Soil – 4 Distinct parts Minerals – 45% of ‘typical’ soil Organic matter – about 5% Water – about 25% Air – about 25%

9. Soil Slowly renewable – may take from 200-1000 years to form 1 inch Provides most of the nutrients needed for plant growth Also helps purify water Formation begins when bedrock - the parent material - is broken down by weathering Decomposition helps produce new soil – except in the rainforests, where nutrients in the soil are recycled into living organisms very quickly

10. Weathering and erosion Breaking down of parent material in soil formation Physical: ▫Expansion of freezing water ▫Biological agents – ex: tree roots Chemical: ▫CO2 in soil reacts with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) ▫Air pollution can also cause acid rain Erosion – removal of rock or soil ▫Wind, water, ice

11. Soil properties - horizons Mature soils have developed over a long time and are arranged in a series of horizontal layers; composition depends on climate, vegetation, and parent material O horizon: organic detritus A horizon: so-called top soil – organic material and minerals mixed together E horizon: a zone of leaching found in acidic soils only B horizon: ‘subsoil’ – mainly minerals with very little organic matter C horizon: the least weathered; similar to the parent material

12. Soil horizons

13. Soil properties - texture The percentages by weight of different sized particles of sand, silt, and clay

14. Soil properties - texture > 2mm = gravel/stone – not actually soil b/c it has no direct value to plants 0.05 – 2mm = sand (largest soil particles) – can be seen easily with the eye 0.002-0.05mm = silt (about the size of flour) – barely visible with the eye < 0.002mm = clay (has the greatest surface value) – only seen under an electronic microsope

15. Soil properties - porosity How quickly the soil drains water: ▫sand – silt – clay Best agricultural soils have a mixture to promote water drainage and retention Sandy soils can cause problems in areas with industrial discharge – pollutants move through them quickly and contaminate groundwater Many landfills are lined with clay to prevent contaminants from leaching into surrounding soil and groundwater

16. Mining Some types and rocks and minerals are vital to modern life Earth’s chemical composition is variable in different locations of the crust

17. Mining… Ore – concentrated accumulations of minerals ▫Typically contain salt, sand, metals Metals – allow electrical and/or heat conduction ▫Copper, nickel, aluminum

18. Mining – surface mining Strip mining – removal of strips of soil and rock to expose ore ▫Used when the desired ore is relatively close to the surface ▫Mining spoils or tailings – unwanted material removed from the surface; usually returned to the hole Open-pit mining – creation of a large hole ▫Resource is close to surface but extends both horizontally and vertically; copper mines Mountain-top removal – just like it sounds Placer mining – use of river water to separate heavier items (like gold and diamond prospectors)

19. Mining – subsurface Used when the resource is more than 100m below Earth’s surface Usually a horizontal tunnel dug into a mountainside with vertical shafts The deepest mines are 2.2 miles deep Coal, diamonds, gold

20. Mining - Impacts Surface ▫Air – dust from earth-moving equipment ▫Water – contamination of water that percolates through tailings ▫Soil – most soil removed from site ▫Biodiversity – habitat alteration and destruction ▫Humans – decline of air and water quality near mining operation

21. Mining – Impacts Subsurface: ▫Air – emissions from fossil fuels used to power mining equipment ▫Water – acid mine drainage as well as contamination of water that percolates through tailings ▫Biodiversity – road construction fragments habitats ▫Humans – occupational hazards; possibility of chronic lung diseases

22. Mining - Legislation General Mining Act – 1872 ▫Allows individuals and companies to recover ores and fuels from federal lands. ▫Contains very few environmental protection provisions Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act – 1977 ▫Regulates surface mining of coal as well as the surface effects of subsurface mining ▫Land must be minimally disturbed during the mining process and reclaimed after mining is completed