1. Vertical Integration B189

2. Vertical Integration ► Facilitate investment in specialized assets up- or down-steam in the value chain ► Protect product quality ► Improve scheduling ► Create barriers to entry ► Prevent competitors accessing quality supplies ► Facilitate investment in specialized assets up- or down-steam in the value chain ► Protect product quality ► Improve scheduling ► Create barriers to entry ► Prevent competitors accessing quality supplies

3. ‘Migrating’ along the value chain Component manufacture AssemblyDistribution Forward integration Backward integration From components into assembly From assembly Into distribution From assembly Into components From distribution Into assembly

4. Vertical Integration ► Facilitate investment in specialized assets up- or down-stream in the value chain Protect product quality ► General Foods bananas? ► Singer sewing-machines Improve scheduling ► Looks like JIT… ► Create barriers to entry/imitation Prevent competitors accessing quality supplies ► Alcoa and its bauxite mine ► General foods bananas ► Facilitate investment in specialized assets up- or down-stream in the value chain Protect product quality ► General Foods bananas? ► Singer sewing-machines Improve scheduling ► Looks like JIT… ► Create barriers to entry/imitation Prevent competitors accessing quality supplies ► Alcoa and its bauxite mine ► General foods bananas

5. (Economic) Exchange A B A B Goods or service Goods or services Barter A B Goods or services Money Monetary transaction Exchange in general Exchange Economic Exchange Money based transactions

6. Diminishing Marginal Cost ► Each additional item of a kind acquired is costs less to produce than the preceding one ► Earlier items are more costly than later ones ► Each additional item of a kind acquired is costs less to produce than the preceding one ► Earlier items are more costly than later ones 1234 cost of first item cost of second item

7. Diminishing Marginal Value ► Each additional item of a kind acquired is valued less than the preceding one just acquired ► Earlier items are valued more than later ones ► e.g. water ► Each additional item of a kind acquired is valued less than the preceding one just acquired ► Earlier items are valued more than later ones ► e.g. water 1234 value of first item value of second item

8. Firms and markets ► Firms and Markets are both contexts in which exchange transactions are executed ► Firms are characterized by long term exchange relationships that would take the place of many market based exchanges ► Firms exercise control using fiat or hierarchy while markets use contracts ► Where control is required but difficult, firms offer a lower cost solution for the transaction than market contracting ► Firms and Markets are both contexts in which exchange transactions are executed ► Firms are characterized by long term exchange relationships that would take the place of many market based exchanges ► Firms exercise control using fiat or hierarchy while markets use contracts ► Where control is required but difficult, firms offer a lower cost solution for the transaction than market contracting

9. Components of Risk ► Asset specificity How much does is your investment tied to this one transaction (or contract) ► Uncertainty Behavioral (how much can you trust this firm?) Technological (how likely is it that you are backing the wrong horse?) Volume (how firm are market trend predictions?) ► Asset specificity How much does is your investment tied to this one transaction (or contract) ► Uncertainty Behavioral (how much can you trust this firm?) Technological (how likely is it that you are backing the wrong horse?) Volume (how firm are market trend predictions?)

10. Effect of asset specificity and uncertainty A B Goods Money ++ High asset specificity/uncertainty for A A B Goods Money Low asset specificity/uncertainty Cost of writing contract Provision for ‘default’

11. High asset specificity/uncertainty A B Good or Service Money Carried out in the market Cost of writing contract Provision for ‘default’ A B Good or Service Money Carried out in the firm

12. The Hold-up Problem

13. Hold-up problem ► Ex ante Mine asks railroad for a quote railroad calculates based on capital and operating costs Deal is struck mine and rail road are built ► Ex post Mine claims ‘financial distress’, offers just over marginal cost Railroad has to take the lower price ► Result anticipating this, railroad will never agree to the deal ► One solution mine builds and operates the rail link ► Ex ante Mine asks railroad for a quote railroad calculates based on capital and operating costs Deal is struck mine and rail road are built ► Ex post Mine claims ‘financial distress’, offers just over marginal cost Railroad has to take the lower price ► Result anticipating this, railroad will never agree to the deal ► One solution mine builds and operates the rail link

14. Transaction costs No safeguards Contractual or other safeguards c default * pr default Firm c contract cost Market c bureaucratic costs

15. Firm or Market ► Administrative ‘overhead’ makes firms usually less efficient (more costly) than markets ► BUT When contracts becomes too costly Or when the possibility of ex-post opportunism is high Then the firm becomes a less expensive option than market contracting ► WHY Alignment of incentives (eliminates reason to renege on the contract) Use of fiat (managerial hierarchy) rather than the courts to settle disputes ► Administrative ‘overhead’ makes firms usually less efficient (more costly) than markets ► BUT When contracts becomes too costly Or when the possibility of ex-post opportunism is high Then the firm becomes a less expensive option than market contracting ► WHY Alignment of incentives (eliminates reason to renege on the contract) Use of fiat (managerial hierarchy) rather than the courts to settle disputes

16. Firm or Market? Transaction cost Cost of market transactionCost of transaction in a firm Asset specificity and uncertainty MARKET FIRM

17. Microsoft Example ► In-house recruiting and training, providing office space and equipment, and of course, salaries, benefits and the cost of HR overhead (mangers and non-programming staff). ► In-house recruiting and training, providing office space and equipment, and of course, salaries, benefits and the cost of HR overhead (mangers and non-programming staff).

18. Examples ► Backward VI Assuring input quality (General Foods) Assuring delivery reliability (Ford, early JIT) Honda (UK, 197?) ► Forward VI Assuring adequate marketing/customer training (Singer, Kodak) ► Backward VI Assuring input quality (General Foods) Assuring delivery reliability (Ford, early JIT) Honda (UK, 197?) ► Forward VI Assuring adequate marketing/customer training (Singer, Kodak)

19. Alternatives ► Long term contracts (NO - for reasons we have just seen) ► Incentive Alignment Equity joint venture (but this is really a firm) ► Economic ‘trust’ Repeated game with the same player Reputation - repeated game with the other players ‘Exchange of hostages’ - mutual dependence ► Real trust Toyota ► Long term contracts (NO - for reasons we have just seen) ► Incentive Alignment Equity joint venture (but this is really a firm) ► Economic ‘trust’ Repeated game with the same player Reputation - repeated game with the other players ‘Exchange of hostages’ - mutual dependence ► Real trust Toyota

20. Outsourcing ► Activities that are not distinctive? Leave to someone else Benefit from their economies of scale Derive benefits from trade, specialization, flexibility, market efficiency and discipline ► BUT Beware of creating powerful suppliers ► Activities that are not distinctive? Leave to someone else Benefit from their economies of scale Derive benefits from trade, specialization, flexibility, market efficiency and discipline ► BUT Beware of creating powerful suppliers

21. Drawbacks of vertical integration ► Assumption of risk Technological change Demand fluctuation BUT uncertainty is in part why VI happens to there is no real alternative ► Lack of market discipline Transfer prices are a matter of internal negotiation BUT if there is no market, there is no price ► Assumption of risk Technological change Demand fluctuation BUT uncertainty is in part why VI happens to there is no real alternative ► Lack of market discipline Transfer prices are a matter of internal negotiation BUT if there is no market, there is no price

22. Summary ► Vertical Integration is useful to: Facilitate investment in specialized assets up- or down-steam in the value chain ► Protect product quality ► Improve scheduling Create barriers to entry/imitation ► Prevent competitors accessing quality supplies or markets ► Vertical Integration is useful to: Facilitate investment in specialized assets up- or down-steam in the value chain ► Protect product quality ► Improve scheduling Create barriers to entry/imitation ► Prevent competitors accessing quality supplies or markets