1. Psychology in Action (8e) PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 3: Life Span Development II 1

2. Lecture Overview Moral Development Personality Development Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood Grief and Death 2

3. Moral Development Kohlberg developed a model of moral development based on responses to moral dilemmas. 3

4. Moral Development— Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 1: punishment-obedience orientation Stage 2: instrumental-exchange orientation CONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 3: good child orientation Stage 4: law-and-order orientation POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 5: social-contract orientation Stage 6: universal ethics orientation 4

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6. 6 Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg contended that moral thinking likewise proceeds through a series of stages  from a preconventional morality of self-interest (gains rewards, avoids punishment)  to a conventional morality that cares for others and upholds laws and rules (gains approval, does duty; obeys because rules exist)  to (in some people) a postconventional morality of agreed-upon rights or basic ethical principles.

7. Preconventional (birth to adolescence) Stage 1- punishment and obedience orientation  Self-centered  Rewards, punishment  Will not admit intentionality Stage 2- instrumental-exchange orientation  Aware of perspective of others  Reciprocal-exchange of favors 7

8. Conventional (adolescence to young adulthood)- other focussed Stage 3- good child orientation  Being nice to gain approval  People judged by intentions of their behavior Stage 4- law-and-order orientation  Takes into account larger perspective- society  One’s duty to respect law and order 8

9. Postconventional (adulthood)- develop own standards of right and wrong/abstract Stage 5- social-contract orientation  Appreciate underlying purposes of laws  Interests in majority versus individual  OK to steal drug to save a life Stage 6- universal ethics orientation  “right” is determined by universal ethics  Human dignity, nonviolence, freedom, equality  Regardless of whether agree, will conform 9

10. Personality Development  Thomas & Chess’s Temperament Theory Temperament: Basic, inborn disposition. Three temperament styles: easy, difficult and slow-to-warm-up. Styles seem consistent and enduring. 10

11. Temperament Person’s characteristic, biologically based way of approaching and reacting to people and situations. Consistent and enduring patterns that are fairly stable over time. Temperament refers to a style of behavior: how a person does whatever they do

12. Temperament Temperament affects the infant’s experience in two ways: 1. infants with different temperaments elicit different responses from others. 2. infants with different temperaments have different reactions to the same environment or events.

13. Thomas and Chess identified three types of temperament: 1. Easy babies: (40% of sample) were playful, regular in body functions, and adaptable. They approached new situations with interest and were moderate in their responses. They were the least likely to have problems later. a. they had a positive mood b. high rhythmicity c. low or moderate intensity reactions d. high adaptability

14. e. an approach orientation to new situations and stimuli. f. As infants and young children, slept and ate regularly, were generally happy, and readily adjusted to new people and events g. Thru later childhood and early adolescence, adjusted easily to changing school requirements and adapted and participated in games and other activities h. Easy because they presented with few problems for parents, teachers, or peers. i. They would be expected to have adaptive, normative interactions

15. 2. Difficult babies (10% of sample) were negative, irregular, and unadaptable. They withdrew from new situations and had intense reactions. Intense and frequent negative moods. Cries often and loudly, laughs loudly. Respond poorly to change. More likely to have difficulty or problems with their parents, school, and peers later in their development. 70% of the difficult children in the sample received psychiatric services while only 18% of the easy children did. They presented with 5 attributes:

16. They presented with 5 attributes: Low rhythmicity High intensity reactions A withdrawal orientation Slow adaptation Negative mood

17. All make for difficult social interactions. As infants and young children, they ate and slept irregularly, took a long time to adjust to new situations, and were characterized by a great deal of crying. Suspicious of strangers, reacts to frustrations with tantrums. This pattern persisted into late childhood and early adolescence, and required parents, teachers, and peers to show both tolerance and patience in order to interact at all favorably with them.

18. 3. Slow-to-Warm-Up (15% of sample) were low in activity and mild in their responses. They tended to withdraw from new situations and needed time to adapt to change. Negative initial response to new stimuli. Sleeps and eats more regular than difficult child, less regular than easy child.

19. They present with: A low activity level; A withdrawal orientation Slow adaptability A somewhat negative mood Relatively low-reaction intensities Interaction problems for parents, teachers, requiring efforts to get the child involved in new activities and situations. This child’s mood and adaptability characteristics created a barrier for positive interactions with parents and teachers.

20. The remaining 35% unclassifiable. They found that infants vary their responses to people and events, and therefore a “good” home or “bad” home may not always account for temperament problems. The key to healthy development is goodness of fit between the child’s temperament and the demands made on the child in their home environment. A child’s environment should be in harmony with their temperament.

21. If the two influences are harmonized, one can expect healthy development of the child; if they are dissonant, behavioral problems are sure to ensure. Environment must fit temperament. A difficult child should not have new situations forced on them too quickly. Easy child can be expected to adapt to sudden changes more readily. Some biological determinants as well, although may or may not continue into adulthood.

22. Temperaments were fairly stable over time; Thomas et al demonstrated that a child’s ratings for each of the various temperamental attributes were stable over from infancy to adolescence A mother with a difficult baby may be less responsive to their infants and less sensitive to changes in their babies emotional states.

23. Babies with difficult temperaments begin at an early age to cause problems between themselves and their parents: this can lead to a heavy-handed parental discipline and child rebellion may continue long after biologically determined temperamental predisposition has ceased to directly influence the child’s disposition. Restructuring the environment to better suit the older child’s temperament may inadvertently reward the child for inappropriate behavior. Differences in temperament and change exist. Some malleability possible.

24. Development issues Erik Erickson: Trust Versus Mistrust *****Parents must maintain an adequate environment-supportive, nurturing, and loving- so that the child develops basic trust. To help achieve this stage: care for, feed, build a warm, affectionate relationship with child

25. Erikson’s Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt Learns what is expected of it, what its obligations and privileges are along with what limitations are placed upon it. Child is starving for new and more activity- orientated experiences; places new demand for self-control and for the acceptance from others in the environment.

26. Erikson’s Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt Adults must tame the child’s willfulness and utilize appropriate shame; yet encourage the child to stand on own two feet and to establish own sense of autonomy. The adults who exercise control must also be firmly reassuring. Child should be encouraged to experience situations that require the autonomy of free choice. Excessive shamefulness will only induce the child to be shameless or force it to attempt to get away with things by being seductive, sneaky, and sly.

27. Erikson’s Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt This stage promotes freedom of self- expression and lovingness. A sense of self-control provides a feeling of good will and pride; a sense of loss of self- control can cause a lasting feelings of shame and doubt. The virtue of Will emerges here: awareness and attention, manipulation, verbalization, and locomotion; can make free choices, to decide, to exercise self-restraint, and to apply oneself. Judicious: judges itself and others to differentiate between right and wrong.

28. Erikson’s Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt Develops sense of right and wrong of certain words and acts, preparing for next stage of feeling guilty. ****As the child develops bowels and bladder control, they should also develop a healthy attitude toward being independent and somewhat self-sufficient. If the child is made to feel that independent efforts are wrong, then shame and self-doubt develop instead of autonomy.

29. Erikson: Initiative Versus Guilt- 3-5½ Learns to pursue, plan, and determination of achieving tasks and goals. Growing Sense of Purpose: the virtue that ascend in this stage; major activity here is playing, explorations, attempts and failures, and experimentation with toys. Danger of this stage: feeling of guilt for an overzealous contemplation of goals, including genital fantasies, use of aggression, manipulative means of achieving these goals.

30. Erikson: Initiative Versus Guilt- 3-5½ Mental games: assuming roles of parents and other adults in make believe world. Imitation of adults allows for realization of what it is like to be them. Play provides an immediate reality; learns what the purpose of things are, and connection between an inner and outer world. Imaginative and uninhibited play are vitally important to the child’s development.

31. Erikson: Initiative Versus Guilt- 3-5½ Purpose: is the courage to envision and pursue valued goals uninhibited by defeat of infantile fantasies, by guilt, and by overcoming the fear of punishment. This age of play is characterized by Dramatic realization: actively plays, wears costumes, imitating adult personalities and pretending to be anything. Negative counterpart to dramatic realization is the ritualism of impersonation throughout life: adult plays roles to present false image of one’s true personality.

32. Erikson: Initiative Versus Guilt- 3-5½ ****The child must discover ways to initiate actions on their own. If such actions are successful, guilt will be avoided.

33. Self-Esteem: Erickson- Stage 4 Industry vs. Inferiority (5½ - 12 years) Must submit to controlling its exuberant imagination and settling down to formal education. Develops sense of industry and learns the rewards of perseverance and diligence. Hazard: child may develop a sense of inferiority if made to or made to feel it is unable to master the tasks that it undertakes or which are set forth by teachers and parents.

34. Virtue of competence emerges. View of future tasks, though not specific. Ready and willing to learn about the tools, machines and methods preparatory for adult work Important to apply intelligence and capacities to prevent feelings of inferiority and regression of the Ego.

35. Work includes attending school, chores at home, assuming responsibilities, studying music, learning manual skills, participating in skillful games and sports. Important thing is that the child must apply its intelligence and abounding energy to some undertaking and direction. Sense of competence is achieved by applying oneself to work and completing tasks, which eventually develops workmanship.

36. Without competence, child experiences inferiority. Competence is the free exercise of dexterity and intelligence in the completion of tasks, unimpaired by infantile inferiority. School age is the stage of formal ritualization, when child learns how to perform methodically.

37. Erikson: Identify versus Identity Confusion During adolescence begins to sense a feeling of own identity. Becomes aware of individual characteristics, likes/dislikes, anticipates goals for future Strength and purpose to control one’s own destiny Time of life to define what one is at the present and what one wants to be in the future.

38. Crisis of Identity Erikson) The adolescent is faced with the task of developing an acceptable, functional and stable self-concept. Those that succeed, according to Erickson, will establish a sense of identity and those who fail will suffer role confusion. The sense of identity is experienced as a sense of psychological well-being.

39. Ego has capacity to select and integrate talents, aptitudes, and skills in identification with likeminded people & in adaptation to the social environment, and to maintain defenses against threats and anxiety, as it learns to decide what impulses, needs, and roles are most appropriate and effective. Thus, the psychosocial identity is formed Due to difficult transition from childhood to adulthood, and of sensitivity to social and historical change, the adolescent is likely to suffer more deeply than ever before or ever again from a confusion or roles, or Identity Confusion.

40. Erikson- Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood) If cannot make deep personal commitments to others, risk becoming overly isolated and self-absorbed. Prepared and willing to unite their identity with others Seek relationships of intimacy, partnerships, and affiliations. Prepared to develop necessary strengths to fulfill these commitments despite the sacrifices that may have to make

41. Erikson Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) Characterized by concern with what is generated, and establishing and setting forth guidelines for up-coming generations. As aspect of identity formation. This push for values is generated by the psychosexual and psychosocial aspects of personality enrichment. When generativity is weak or not given expression the personality regresses, takes on a sense of impoverishment and stagnation

42. Erikson Ego Integrity vs. Despair A state one reaches after having taken care of things and people, products and ideas, and having adapted to the successes and failures of existence. Reflection of one’s life. Once accomplished prior 7 stages, now can perceive their life as having some Order & Meaning within a larger order. Ego integrity- a sense of having integrated the self

43. 43 Table 4.2 Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

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45. Personality Development— Myths of Development Myth #1- Adolescence is a time of great storm and stress. Myth #2- Most people experience a midlife crisis in their middle years. Myth #3- Most parents experience a painful empty-nest syndrome when children leave home. 45

46. Personality Development— Myth of the Empty Nest Syndrome 46

47. Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood: Marriage Research shows good marriages: Establish “love maps.” Share power and provide mutual support. Practice conflict management. Share similar values, beliefs, interests, etc. Create a supportive social environment. Maintain a positive emphasis. 47

48. Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood: Families Important family factors in development: Violence Teen pregnancy Divorce 48

49. Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood- Work and Retirement Work: How can we find a career that best matches our personality and interests? 49

50. Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood— Are You in the Right Job? 50

51. Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood- Work and Retirement Retirement: Should we follow the activity, disengagement, or socio-emotional selectivity theory? 51

52. Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood—The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory 52

53. Grief and Death Grief is a natural reaction to loss. Four Major Stages of Grief: 1. Numbness 2. Yearning 3. Disorganization/Despair 4. Resolution 53

54. Grief and Death Cultures interpret and respond to death differently. Different ages interpret and respond to death according to: Permanence Universality Nonfunctionality 54

55. Grief and Death (Continued) Kübler-Ross developed a five stage theory of the psychological processes surrounding death: Denial (“It can’t be true!”) Anger (“Why me? It’s not fair!”) Bargaining (“I’ll change everything!”) Depression (“I’ve lost everything.”) Acceptance (“I know my time is near.”) 55

56. 56 Figure 4.37 Biopsychosocial influences on successful aging Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers