1. The International System
Monetary Policy

2. Foreign Exchange Market and the Government
The foreign exchange market is not free of government intervention.
Central banks engage in international financial transactions called foreign exchange interventions in order to influence exchange rates.
The first step in understanding how this works is to see how exchange market intervention affects the monetary base.

3. Exchange Market Intervention
Unsterilized:
The Fed sells $1 billion of foreign assets in exchange for $1 billion dollars (cash transaction).
Federal Reserve
Assets Liabilities
Foreign Assets -$1b Currency -$1b

4. Exchange Market Intervention
Unsterilized:
The Fed sells $1 billion of foreign assets in exchange for $1 billion dollars (check transaction).
Federal Reserve
Assets Liabilities
Foreign Assets -$1b Reserves -$1b

5. Exchange Market Intervention
Results:
A central bank’s purchase of domestic currency and corresponding sale of foreign assets leads to an equal decline in its international reserves and the monetary base.

6. Exchange Market Intervention
Unsterilized:
The Fed buys $1 billion of foreign assets in exchange for $1 billion dollars.
Federal Reserve
Assets Liabilities
Foreign Assets +$1b Currency +$1b
Foreign Assets +$1b Reserves +$1b

7. Exchange Market Intervention
Results:
A central bank’s sale of domestic currency and corresponding purchase of foreign assets leads to an equal increase in its international reserves and the monetary base.

8. Exchange Market Intervention and the Exchange Rate
How does an unsterilized intervention affect the exchange rate?
An unsterilized intervention in which domestic currency is sold to purchase foreign assets leads to a gain in international reserves, an increase in the money supply, and a depreciation of the domestic currency.

9. Exchange Market Intervention and the Exchange Rate
How does an unsterilized intervention affect the exchange rate?
An unsterilized intervention in which domestic currency is bought by selling foreign assets leads to a drop in international reserves, a decrease in the money supply, and an appreciation of the domestic currency.

10. Intervention in the Foreign Exchange Market
Conclusion:
If a central bank intervenes in the foreign exchange market, it gives up some control over its money supply.
The sale of foreign assets results in a decrease in the currency worldwide.
The purchase of foreign assets results in an increase in the currency worldwide.

11. Intervention in the Foreign Exchange Market
If a central bank does not want the currency to fall, it can follow a contractionary monetary policy, which reduces base and the money supply.
The decrease in the money supply given demand supports the currency’s value.

12. Exchange Market Intervention
Sterilized:
The Fed buys $1 billion of foreign assets in exchange for $1 billion dollars and sells bonds.
Federal Reserve
Assets Liabilities
Foreign Assets $1b Currency or Reserves +$1b
Government Bonds -$1b Currency or Reserves -$1b

13. Intervention in the Foreign Exchange Market
If a central bank does not want the currency to rise, it can follow an expansionary monetary policy, which increases base and the money supply.
The increase in the money supply given demand tends to decrease the currency’s value.

14. Exchange Market Intervention
Sterilized:
The Fed sells $1 billion of foreign assets in exchange for $1 billion dollars and buys bonds.
Federal Reserve
Assets Liabilities
Foreign Assets $1b Currency or Reserves -$1b
Government Bonds +$1b Currency or Reserves +$1b

15. Sterilized Exchange Market Intervention
Conclusions:
A central bank’s sale or purchase of foreign assets and corresponding purchase or sale of domestic currency leads to an equal decrease or increase in its international reserves and the monetary base.
But, if the central bank buys or sells and equal amount of government bonds at the same time, the monetary base does not change.

16. Money Supply and the Exchange RateEt
RETD2
RETD1
A sale of dollars and purchase of foreign
assets cause RETD to shift left from RETD1
to RETD2
The increase in the money supply also causes
RETF to shift right from RETF1 to RETF2.
Therefore, in the short run the exchange rate
falls from E1 to E2.
In the long run, as the domestic rate of
interest rises, RETD shifts right and the
exchange rate rises to E3
RETF1
RETF2 1 E1 E3 3 E2 2
RET$
Unsterilized

17. The Money Supply and the Exchange Rate
The story:
A sale of dollars and consequent open market purchase of foreign assets increase base, causing the money supply to rise.
The increase in the money supply results in a higher domestic price level in the long run, which leads to a lower expected future exchange rate.

18. The Money Supply and the Exchange Rate
The story:
The resulting decline in the expected appreciation of the dollar raises the expected return on foreign deposits.
In the short run, domestic interest rates fall because of the increase in the money supply.
The combination of higher expected returns on foreign deposits and lower domestic interest rates, causes the exchange rate to fall.

19. The Money Supply and the Exchange Rate
The story:
In the long run, however, domestic interest rates rise, and the exchange rate rises.

20. Money Supply and the Exchange RateEt
RETD1
RETD2
A purchase of dollars and sale of foreign
assets cause RETD to shift right from RETD1
to RETD2 in the short run.
The decrease in the money supply also causes
RETF to shift left from RETF1 to RETF2.
Therefore, in the short run, the exchange
rate rises from E1 to E2.
In the long run, as the domestic rate of interest
falls, RETD shifts left and the exchange rate
falls to E3
RETF2
RETF1 E2 E3 E1 2 3 1
RET$
Unsterilized

21. Sterilized Intervention
In this model, where the domestic and foreign deposits are perfect substitutes, and the foreign asset transaction is sterilized, the exchange rate does not change.
Why?

22. Sterilized Intervention
If the money supply does not change, domestic interest rates do not change.
If the money supply does not change, expectations about inflation and future exchange rates do not change.
If the future expected value of the dollar does not change, the expected return on foreign deposits also does not change.

23. Sterilized Intervention
Theoretically, if the deposits are not perfect substitutes, the exchange rate can change even if the foreign asset transaction is sterilized.
But empirical studies do not find evidence of this happening to any great extent.

24. International Transactions: Balance of Payments
Balance of Payments Account
A tabulation of all transactions between the residents of a nation and the residents of all other nations in the world.

25. International Transactions: Balance of Payments
Balance of Payments Accounts
Current Account
BOP account that tabulates international trade and transfers of goods and services and flows of income.
Capital Account
BOP account that records all non-governmental international asset transactions.

26. Current Account Merchandise Trade Balance
Merchandise exports minus merchandise imports
In 2000, exports = and imports = – 1,223, so the merchandise trade balance was – 450.
Net Service Transactions and Income Flows
Services we provide to the rest of the world minus services they provide to us plus other income flows.
In 2000, net service transactions = 81 – 14 – 53.
Balance on Goods and Services
The sum of the merchandise trade balance and net service transactions.
In 2000, the balance was – 436.

27. Current Account Net Investment Income Flow Unilateral Transfers
Individuals and firms that reside in the USA earn income on assets that they hold in other nations.
Similarly, residents that reside in other nations earn income on assets that they hold in the USA.
Net income flow is the difference between these sums.
In 2000, net investment income was 14.
Unilateral Transfers
Gifts that U.S. residents give to residents or governments of other nations or that foreign resident or governments give to the U.S.
In 2000, unilateral transfers were -53.

28. The Capital Account
Changes in asset holdings by U.S. residents and residents of other nations take place in international financial markets and are recorded outside the current account.
The capital account tabulates asset transactions involving private individuals or firms.

29. Capital Account Capital Outflows Capital Inflows
American purchases of foreign assets.
In 2000, capital outflows = – 553.
Capital Inflows
Foreign purchases of American assets.
In 2000, capital inflows = 952.
Statistical Discrepancy
Errors due to unrecorded transactions involving smuggling and other data discrepancies.
In 2000, statistical discrepancy = 35

30. Official Reserves Transactions Balance
Official reserves transactions balance gives the net total of all private exchanges between U.S. individuals and businesses and the rest of the world.
It is the sum of the current account balance and the capital account balance .
In 2000, the official reserves transactions balance was – $436 + $434 = – $2.

31. Official Reserves Transactions Balance
The official reserves transactions balance tells us the net amount of international reserves that must move between central banks to finance international transactions.
A balance-of-payments deficit can be financed by a decrease in U.S. international reserves, an increase in foreign central banks’ holdings of international reserves (dollar assets) or both.

32. Methods of Financing Change in U.S. Official Reserve Assets
Change in U.S. international reserves
In 2000, international reserves increased by $33 billion dollars or a payment of – $33.
International reserves increase when we buy them from foreigners with an outflow of dollars.
Change in foreign holdings of dollars
In 2000, foreign holdings of dollars increased by $35.

33. Overall Balance of Payments
The overall balance of payments always equals zero.
In 2000, the United States indebtedness to foreign central banks increased by $2 billion.
This $2 billion increase just matches the $2 billion official reserve transactions deficit.

34. Balance-of-Payments and the USA
The USA can run a large balance-of-payments deficit without losing huge amounts of international reserves because it is a major reserve currency country.
Nevertheless, balance-of-payments deficits are still a problem to the Federal Reserve.

35. Balance-of-Payments and the USA
Current account deficits suggest that the dollar is too high and may be diminishing the competitiveness of American businesses.
Large U.S balance-of-payments deficits lead to balance-of-payments surpluses in other countries, which in turn can lead to large increases in their holdings of international reserves, leading to higher levels of inflation.

36. Fixed Exchange Rates
In a system of fixed exchange rates, each country’s central bank intervenes in the foreign exchange market to prevent that country’s exchange rate from going outside a narrow band on either side of its par value.
The bank must be prepared to offset imbalances in demand and supply by government sales or purchases of foreign exchange.

37. Fixed Exchange Rates: Example
Let the exchange value of the Hong Kong dollar be set such that it is overvalued relative to its current market value.
Hong Kong must drive up the value of the HK$ by buying HK$s in the world market.
Hong Kong loses international reserves.

38. Fixed Exchange Rates: Example
Let the exchange value of the Hong Kong dollar be set such that it is undervalued relative to its current market value.
Hong Kong must drive down the value of the HK$ by selling HK$s in the world market.
Hong Kong gains international reserves.

39. Fixed Exchange Rate: ExampleS
$/HK$
$/HK$
Market S
Loss of Reserves
Peg
Peg
Gain of Reserves
Market D D Q Q
Overvalued
Undervalued

40. Fixed Exchange Rates: Overvalued CurrencyEt
RETD1
RETD2
RETF1
At the exchange rate Epar, the currency is
overvalued.
To keep the currency at Epar, the central bank
must purchase domestic currency, shifting
RETD1 to RETD2.
Epar 2 E2 1
RET$

41. Consequences of Exchange Rate Intervention
When a country attempts to maintain an overvalued exchange rate, it loses international reserves.
If the country runs out of international reserves, it can no longer support its currency and must devalue.

42. Fixed Exchange Rates: Undervalued CurrencyEt
RETD2
RETD1
RETF1
At the exchange rate Epar, the currency is
undervalued.
To keep the currency at Epar, the central bank
must sell domestic currency to shift RETD1
to RETD2. E2 1
Epar 2
RET$

43. Consequences of Exchange Rate Intervention
When a country attempts to maintain an undervalued exchange rate, it gains international reserves.
If the country does not want to accumulate international reserves, it may decide to revalue its currency.

44. Consequences of Exchange Rate Intervention
If domestic and foreign currencies are perfect substitutes, a sterilized exchange rate intervention would not be able to maintain the exchange rate at Epar.
RETD will not shift.
No change in domestic interest rates.
RETF will not shift
No change in expectations about the future value of the currency.

45. Consequences of Exchange Rate Intervention
When smaller countries tie their exchange rate to that of a larger country, they lose control of their monetary policy.
If the larger country pursues a more contractionary monetary policy, inflation expectations in the larger country will fall, causing the larger country’s currency to appreciate and the smaller country’s currency to become overvalued.

46. Consequences of Exchange Rate Intervention
The smaller country will now have to buy its own currency and sell the currency of the larger country.
As a result, the smaller country’s international reserves, base, and money supply will contract.
Sterilization is not possible because it would just lead to more losses of international reserves and an eventual devaluation.

47. Foreign Exchange Crisis: MexicoEt
RETD = the expected return on the peso.
RETF = the expected return on the dollar.
After the assassination of the ruling party’s
presidential candidate, investors became
concerned that the government would devalue
the peso, the expected return on the dollar rose
to RETF2 ,and the value of the peso fell.
To maintain Epar, the Mexican government
bought pesos and shifted RETD to the right.
RETD1
RETF1
RETF2
Epar 1 2 1’
RET$
Mexico

48. Foreign Exchange Crisis: Mexico
RETD = the expected return on the peso.
RETF = the expected return on the dollar.
An uprising in Chiapas, another assassination,
and concerns about the current account
deficit led to more rumors about devaluation.
RETF shifted to RETF3. The Mexicans
intervened, buying pesos. As the speculators
realized that Mexico was running out of
foreign reserves and would have to devalue,
RETF shifted further right. Et
RETD1
RETF1
RETF3
RETF2
Epar 1 2 3 1’
RET$

49. Foreign Exchange Crisis: Thailand
RETD = the expected return on the baht.
RETF = the expected return on the dollar.
Concerns about Thailand’s current account
deficit and weak financial system caused
speculators to suspect that Thailand would
devalue.
RETF shifted to the right, putting pressure on
the baht. Thailand intervened and bought
baht. The collapse of Finance One caused
another shift of RETF to the right.
Ultimately, Thailand ran out of international
reserves and devalued. Et
RETD1
RETF1
RETF3
RETF2
Epar 1 2 3 1’
RET$
Thailand

50. Capital Outflows Capital Outflows
Capital outflows can promote financial instability in emerging market countries because they can lead to a devaluation in the domestic currency.
Should capital outflows be restricted?

51. Capital Controls Disadvantages:
Capital controls are seldom effective during a crisis because people find ways to evade them.
Capital controls can increase capital flight as people lose confidence in the government.
Capital controls lead to corruption of government officials.
Capital controls delay reform of the financial system.

52. Capital Inflows Capital Inflows Should capital inflows be restricted?
Capital inflows can promote financial instability in emerging market countries because speculative capital can exit the country as suddenly as it entered, causing or contributing to a currency crisis.
Should capital inflows be restricted?

53. Capital Controls Advantages:
Capital controls on capital inflows can regulate the flow of capital and avoid sudden changes that disrupt the financial system.
There is a strong case for improving bank regulation and supervision to control capital inflows.
Restrictions on how fast banks’ borrowing can grow could limit capital inflows.

54. Capital Controls Disadvantages:
Capital controls may block funds that would be used for productive investment from entering a country.
Capital controls are unlikely to be effective in today’s environment.
Capital controls over time produce substantial distortions and misallocation of resources as people avoid them.
Capital controls can lead to corruption of government officials.