1. Feminism, Gender & crime

2. In what ways might you question the statistics?
The evidence...?
Official statistics show that 87% of crimes are committed by males – particularly young, working-class males.
To what extent can you infer from the above that crime is a predominantly masculine activity?
In what ways might you question the statistics?

3. Feminism
What are the different forms of feminism?

4. Liberal feminism Liberal Feminists campaign for equal rights with men.
In terms of crime, they are concerned that women are ignored by research into crime (e.g. Female victims are ‘hidden’).
They believe crime cannot
be fully understood until
this is rectified.

5. RADICAL FEMINISM
The goal for radical feminists is to free women from patriarchal control.
In terms of crime, they believe it can only be understood from a female perspective.
This is because all men are potential
criminals: Given the chance, a man
will always commit a crime against
a woman.

6. Other Forms Marxist Feminism To understand crime, you have to
understand how capitalism and sexism
divide societies.
Postmodern Feminism
Women need a new form of criminology, which goes beyond existing studies (transgressive criminology). This is the only way to understand female deviance.

7. In Pairs (5 mins)
List as many crimes as you can that might be considered ‘typical female crimes’ (aim for a minimum of three). Justify your responses.
Ext: - Taking your list into account, are any of the crimes more likely to be committed by females than males? If so, why?

8. Discuss
Do you think that differences between men and women might be down to biological differences?

9. Biological explanations
Lombroso was the first to
attempt to explain
criminal behaviour
scientifically...
...His biological
explanations for crime are
now discredited: He
argued that women are
more cunning and
deceitful than men,
therefore better at
covering up their
criminal behaviour...

10. Biological explanations
Other biological explanations suggests that ‘normal’ females have an innate disposition that repels them from criminal behaviour...
...Some research has identified a link between female crime and hormonal and/or menstrual factors...
...Overall, however, biological
explanations have little support in
sociology.

11. Feminist Explanations

12. 1. sex-role theory
This theory considers differences in the ways in which males and females are socialised.
In pairs, revisit your AS studies and discuss what we covered on this area. What were some of the important theories/ideas/concepts/studies?

13. Sex-role theory
Children are socialised into clear gender roles which influence their potential for criminal behaviour...
Female roles incorporate caring, passivity and domesticity whereas male roles incorporate aggression, toughness and sexual conquest.
Females therefore lack the values associated with delinquency and criminal behaviour...

14. SEX-ROLE THEORY
Some of the types of crime associated with females – shoplifting and prostitution – reflect socialised gender roles: As family provider on one hand and sexual provider on the other...

15. Discuss
Studies show that women tend to murder husbands and lovers, while men tend to murder friends and strangers. Women use less violence than men: They tend to murder in their homes and use kitchen implements.
What does the above suggest about how patterns of murder might be linked to gender roles?

16. Nature vs. Nurture: mini essay
Using what you have learned so far, write 500 words on the following:
Is it possible that women are naturally less likely to be criminals than men?
(15 mins)

17. 2. SOCIAL CONTROL Heidonsohn (1996)
Women are more closely controlled and supervised in our society than males are.
There are many informal sanctions in place to discourage women from ‘straying’ from ‘proper’ behaviour.

18. Social control
Discuss: How might women be discouraged from ‘straying’ by:
Families
The Media
Education
Peer groups
e.g. Hagan (1996) Studied how children in Canada are raised; identified much greater informal control of daughters than sons.

19. Social control Pat Carlen (1985)
Studied crimes by women and found that the majority were committed by
working-class women.
She explained this by referring to the
class deal and gender deal. Crimes
were more likely to be committed by
women who had either not been
offered – or had rejected – these
deals.

20. The Gender Deal (Carlen; 1985)
Banker: If you behave like a traditional woman should in any patriarchal society (clean my house, make my dinner, raise my kids etc.) you will be rewarded, both emotionally and through your family life. And I’ll buy you nice things.
Noel: Okay.

21. Class Deal (Carlen; 1985)
Women who work will be offered material rewards, alongside a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities.

22. Discuss
Why might a woman not be offered the class deal or the gender deal? What might the effects of this be?

23. 3. Lack of opportunities
Traditionally, women were more confined to the domestic sphere and therefore had less opportunity to indulge in criminal behaviour...
...However, this situation is changing.
Wilkinson found that in California,
where employment rates between men
and women are equal, women are just
as likely as men to engage in white-
-collar crime.

24. 4. The Chivalry thesis Pollack (1950)
Men are taught to be chivalrous towards women...
...Women on the other hand learn to be devious and to fake their emotions in order to trick men.

25. The Chivalry factor
Women are more deviant than they appear to be, but are protected by a chivalry factor by the male-dominated CJS.
Crime statistics relating to gender are therefore severely flawed!
Hilary Allen (1987) argues that mental health explanations (including PMS) for female crimes result in lighter punishments.

26. The Chivalry Factor
However, Leonard (1982) points out that not all women are protected by the chivalry factor – women who don’t conform to the norms of passive femininity are more harshly treated by the CJS...
...Feminists also argue that the law often operates against women e.g. Walklate (1998) shows how police procedures for dealing with rape claims are not effective...

27. Activity
In Pairs: Complete the activity in p18 of your workbooks.

28. Research Research these women: Rosemary West Myra Hindley
Aileen Wuornos
What were they convicted of?
What were they sentenced to?
What might this tell us about the chivalry factor?

29. Female crime statistics
Qualitative & Quantitative evidence suggests:
Although they commit less crime than men, women commit all types of offences.
Women are motivated by economic factors just as men are (e.g. In property crime)
Women feel and fear the stigma of the criminal ‘label’...
...Women who commit crimes are seen as doubly deviant – for breaking social rules and for being labelled as ‘unfeminine’.

30. Will Female crime rise? Adler (1975)
Studied ‘liberated’ female juvenile delinquents...
...She claimed that women’s liberation would cause women’s participation in crime to increase.
Carol Smart (1979) criticises Adler’s work, pointing out that juvenile delinquency does not pre-empt adult criminality.

31. Evaluation of feminist views
The law serves women’s interests more than mens (e.g Fathers For Justice claims about divorce law)
Traditional gender socialisation has changed; feminists often ignore this.
The rise of the ‘ladette’ is a real challenge to some feminist views.
Feminists ignore the extent of crimes committed by women against men e.g. Domestic violence in which men are the victims is ignored.

32. Masculinities & crime

33. RECAP What different types of masculinity did we identify at AS?
What is meant by the crisis of masculinity?

34. The other side of the gender debate...
Messerschmidt (1993)
Men have to constantly work at
achieving normative masculinity...
...A businessman can achieve this in the
workplace through controlling female employees; a working-class man might try and achieve it in the domestic sphere e.g. through abusing a partner.

35. Messerschmidt: Middle-class males
Middle-class males do well at school, but as a result of this are emasculated...
...In school they adopt an accommodating masculinity, but compensate for this outside of school through an oppositional masculinity (e.g. Pranks, drinking)
Working-class males may adopt this oppositional masculinity both in and out
of school.

36. Aggressive masculinity
Campbell (1993) suggests that an aggressive masculinity is adopted by young men to compensate for their lack of breadwinner status...
Men may express this masculinity through violence (e.g. Football hooliganism, fighting)...
...This type of masculinity is also expressed through other forms of control e.g. Control over technology (stolen cars), public spaces (fighting in the streets), over the ‘other’ (women, minorities)

37. Enjoyment of deviance
Katz (1988) argued that much criminology has overlooked the fact that crime is often committed purely out of enjoyment...
...Violent crime is seductive; often undertaken for thrill, chaos and potential danger...
...This fits the demands of hegemonic masculinity on status, control of others and success...
Lyng (1990) devised the concept of edgework – young males gaining pleasure through taking risks.

38. GENDER TABOO CHIVALRY FACTOR EDGEWORK LADETTE RADICAL FEMINISTS
MESSERSCHMIDT
ROSEMARY WEST
LACK OF OPPORTUNITIES
AGGRESSIVE MASCULINITY
KATZ

39. Written Task
Outline and evaluate feminist explanations for gender differences in crime [50]