1. Conducting Research: The Scientific Methods Hyde, A. (2007). Adapted from Henlsin, J. (2005) Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach 7/e. New York: Allyn & Bacon and by Ozan Akkus, Ph.D., Fordham University, August 2005

2. Definitions of Science ► The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. ► The systematic and organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena. ► The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts.

3.  Understand (philosophical inquiry; social and natural sciences)  Predict (social and natural sciences)  Control (social and natural sciences) The Goals of Science

4.  The Natural Sciences—Explain and Predict Events in Natural Environment  The Social Sciences—Examine Human Relationships Political Science—Studies How People Govern Themselves/Use Power Political Science—Studies How People Govern Themselves/Use Power Economics—Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and Services Economics—Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and Services Anthropology—The Study of Culture Anthropology—The Study of Culture Psychology—The Study of Processes Within Individuals Psychology—The Study of Processes Within Individuals Sociology – The Study of Groups, Individuals and Environments Sociology – The Study of Groups, Individuals and Environments The Natural Sciences & The Social Sciences

5. What Makes a Method Scientific? ► A scientific method is any process by which researchers, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of some phenomenon. ► The Scientific Method usually refers to of the testing of an hypothesis via experimental design to generate quantifiable data.

6. The Scientific Method: Scope  Can be applied to anything within the range of our experiences  Can offer useful explanations and predictions (technological advances; medical cures)  Aims to falsify more than to prove  Does not aim to give an ultimate answer. iterative and recursive nature  always tentative  Does not establish GOODNESS, BEAUTY, or TRUTH

7.  Macro—Broad Matters  Micro—Individualistic Matters  Basic-Constructing Theory  Applied-Implementing Solutions Levels of Analysis & Types of Research

8. 1. Selecting a Topic 2. Defining a Problem 3. Reviewing the 3. Reviewing the Literature 4. Formulating a Hypothesis Steps in the Research Process 5. Choosing a Research Method 6. Collecting Data 7. Analyzing Results 8. Sharing Results

9. Steps in the Research Process Source: Modification of Fig. 2.2 of Schaefer 1989

10.  Available Resources  Access to Subjects  Purpose of Research  Researcher’s Background and Training Deciding Which Method to Use

11.  Quantitative Research Methods  Emphasis on Precise Measurement  Uses Statistics and Numbers  Qualitative Research Methods  Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and Interpreting Behavior Deciding Which Method to Use

12.  Openness, Honesty, and Truthfulness  Forbids Falsifying Results  Condemns Plagiarism  Subjects’ Informed Consent  Subjects’ Anonymity  Protecting Subjects: The Brajuha Research  Misleading Subjects: The Humphreys Research Ethics in Social Research

13.  Choose Population  Select a Sample Random Sample Random Sample Stratified Random Sample Stratified Random Sample  Choose Neutral Questions Research Methods: Survey

14.  Interviews More Researcher Control More Researcher Control Time Consuming Time Consuming Interviewer Bias Interviewer Bias Structured Interviews Structured Interviews Open-Ended Questions Open-Ended Questions Establish Rapport Establish Rapport Two Types of Surveys  Questionnaires Self-Administered Self-Administered Allow the Largest Sample Allow the Largest Sample Low Cost Low Cost Loss of Researcher Control Loss of Researcher Control

15.  “ Fieldwork”  Researcher Participates  Exploratory Work or Ethnography  Generates Hypotheses  Problems with Generalizability Research Methods: Participant Observation

16.  Analyze Data Collected by Others  Researcher Cannot Be Sure of Data Quality Research Methods: Secondary Analysis Research Methods: Document Analysis  Examine Books, Newspapers, Diaries, etc.  Limited Scope  Cannot Study Topic Unless Access is Granted

17.  Observe People Without Them Knowing  Question of Ethics Research Methods: Unobtrusive Measures Research Methods: Experiments  Experimental Group – Random Assignment  Control Group – Random Assignment  Dependent Variables  Independent Variables  Control of Outside Variables

18. Dependent vs. Independent Variables ► Dependent Variable = what you are measuring (Test Scores) ► Independent Variable = what are in control of or what you manipulate (Big Bird) ► Measure the Dependent Variable Twice (Pre- and Post – Test) ► How does the Independent Variable affect the Dependent Variable?

19. Figure 5.2 The Experiment

20. Scientific Theory Building/Testing