1. Stress and Well-Being at Work
Chapter 7 Nelson & Quick
Stress and Well-Being at Work

2. What is Stress?
Stress - the unconscious preparation to fight or flee that a person experiences when faced with any demand
Stressor - the person or event that triggers the stress response
Distress - the adverse psychological, physical, behavioral, and organizational consequences that may arise as a result of stressful events
Strain – distress
Homeostasis – a steady state of bodily functioning and equilibrium
STRESS is neither negative nor positive, but simply the body’s response to demanding stimuli. 2

3. political uncertainty system, cardiovascular
A Model of Stress
Consequences
Potential Sources
Individual
Differences:
Social support,
experience
Psychological:
Tension, irritability,
anxiety
Environment:
economic uncertainty
political uncertainty
Organization:
Job demands,
Resources, change,
Difficult boss
Physiological:
Muscular tension,
Weakens immune
system, cardiovascular
disorders
Experienced
Stress
The potential sources of stress include:
the environment
the organization
and individual factors
How a person experiences stress is moderated by individual differences, such as experience.
The negative consequences of stress fall into three categories:
Psychological
Physiological
And behavioral
Individual Factors:
Family problems,
personality
Behavioral:
Sleep troubles,
Absence,
substance abuse
Prentice-Hall, 2001, Ch. 18

4. 4 Stress Approaches: Homeostatic/Medical Approach
Homeostasis +
External environmental demand
Fight =
Flight
STRESS
When an external environmental demand upset’s a person’s equilibrium, stress occurs.
Walter Cannon:
originally described stress
“the emergency response” or the “fight-or-flight response”
Focus on physiological responses of the nervous system 3

5. 4 Stress Approaches: Cognitive Appraisal Approach
Individuals differ in their appraisal of events & people
What is stressful for one person is not for another
Perception and cognitive appraisal determines what is stressful
Richard Lazarus:
Psychological responses of stress
De-emphasized medical responses
In PROBLEM-FOCUSED COPING, you manage the stressor.
Prioritizing workload
Hire more people
In EMOTION-FOCUSED COPING, you manage your response.
Avoid overreacting when given extra work without warning
Calming techniques: breathing, breaks
Problem-focused coping
emphasizes managing the stressor
Emotion-focused coping
emphasizes managing your response 4

6. 4 Stress Approaches: Person-Environment Fit Approach
No undue stress Good person-environment fit: a person’s skills & abilities match a clearly defined, consistent set of role expectations
Stress, strain, and depression occur when role expectations are confusing and/or conflicting, or when the person’s skills & abilities do not meet the demands of the social role
Robert Kahn:
social psychology of stress
Multiple social roles conflict and create stress
A good person-environment fit occurs when:
Abilities match expectations of social role
A bad fit occurs when:
Roles are unclear or conflicting
Abilities do not meet demands of social role 5

7. 4 Stress Approaches: Psychoanalytic Approach
Ego Ideal - the embodiment of a person’s perfect self
Self-Image - how a person sees oneself, both positively & negatively
= the difference between ego ideal and self-image
STRESS
Harry Levinson:
Used Freudian psychoanalytic theory to understand stress
Unconscious personality factors cause stress
EGO-IDEAL element:
A person’s image of their perfect self
Wished-for qualities
Admirable attributes
No negatives
SELF-IMAGE element:
How the person really sees him- or herself, both the positive and the negative
STRESS results from the discrepancy between the Ego Ideal and the Self-Image. 6

8. The Stress Response
Blood redirected from the skin & internal organs to brain and large muscles
Increased alertness: improved vision, hearing, & other sensory responses
Release of glucose & fatty acids for sustenance
Depression of immune system, digestion, & similar restorative processes
Sympathetic nervous system
& the
endocrine (hormone) system
activated
Release of chemical messengers, primarily adrenaline, into the bloodstream
No matter what psychological approach to understanding stress is used, the physiological Stress Response is the same:
Adrenaline is released into the bloodstream
This activates the endocrine and sympathetic nervous system
The person is prepared for Fight-or-Flight
Redirection of blood away from the skin, internal organs, and extremities
Increased alertness through activation of the brainstem
Release of glucose into bloodstream to nourish the body during stressful event
Depression of immune system and non-vital processes to focus energies on the brain
WHAT THIS MEANS:
These physical changes move the person from the neutral state of homeostasis to an offensive posture.
Allows a person to deal with emergencies and reach peak performance.
The stress response is not inherently bad. 7

9. Sources of Stress at Work
TASK DEMANDS:
Job insecurity
Change and uncertainty caused by: technological innovation, economic downturns
Higher productivity leads to fewer people doing more, time pressure
ROLE DEMANDS:
Role conflict: results from inconsistent or incompatible expectations
Interrole: conflicting expectations related to 2 separate roles, such as employee and parent; can lead to withdrawal behaviors; ex) big presentation on Monday and sick child Sunday night
Intrarole: conflicting expectations related to a single role, such as employee; ex) manager wants high quality work and very fast work
Person-role: expectations that violate person’s value or beliefs; can lead to divided loyalties; ex) ethical problems at Enron ignored by good people afraid for their jobs
Role ambiguity: the confusion a person experiences related to others’ expectations
Not understanding what is expected
Not knowing the result of failure
INTERPERSONAL DEMANDS:
Poor leadership: demanding or directive management style
Sexual harassment at work: creates stress for the person being harassed and for others
Lack of trust: lower group cohesiveness and functional diversity
PHYSICAL DEMANDS
Global travel: jet lag, loss of sleep
Extreme environs: “sweat shop” expression reflective of fact that temp affects well-being
Physical work environment: eye strain, noise, cubicles 8

10. Stress Sources at Work HOME DEMANDS:
Traditional families: role conflict, work overloads
2-income families: quality child care
Baby Boomers: aging population will increase need for quality parental care
We must integrate our many social roles into a cohesive whole identity
PERSONAL DEMANDS:
Self-imposed
Workaholism: an imbalanced preoccupation with work at the expense of home and personal life satisfaction
Nonwork commitments: civic and volunteer activities, worship and public service
Provide alternative satisfactions
Trauma: job loss, romantic failure, even catastrophic events like 9/11 9

11. Yerkes-Dodson Law Performance arousal Stress level High Low Optimum
(eustress)
High
(distress)
Low
(distress)
YERKES-DODSON LAW:
Stress leads to improved performance up to an optimum point
Beyond that point, further stress leads to lowered performance
The greatest performance is at the midpoint of the curve: greatest benefits are achieved here
The stress response gives momentary physical force, strength, and energy boost for optimum performance
Stress level
Boredom from
understimulation
Optimum
stress load
Conditions
perceived
as stressful
Distress from
overstimulation 11

12. Stress Benefits and Costs
EUSTRESS = euphoria + stress
Characteristic of healthy people
Use stress-induced energy in positive ways
DISTRESS
Adverse consequences of stressful events
Not a characteristic of healthy people
Indicative of imbalance (a person is out of homeostasis) 10

13. Positive Stress/Negative Stress
Stress response itself is neutral
Some stressful activities (aerobic exercise, etc.) can enhance a person’s ability to manage stressful demands or situations
Stress can provide a needed energy boost
Negative stress results from
a prolonged activation of the stress response
mismanagement of the energy induced by the response
unique personal vulnerabilities 12

14. Individual Stress Behavioral problems Medical illness
(substance abuse,
violence, accidents)
Medical illness
(heart disease, strokes,
headaches, backaches)
Depression, burnout, emotional exhaustion
Psychosomatic disorder: physical disorder brought on by a psychological cause, e.g., so much stress brought on by public speaking that the mind does not allow the body to actually speak
Heart attacks, strokes, ulcers
Behavioral problems: aggression, substance abuse, interpersonal conflict
Work-related psychological disorders
(depression, burnout,
psychosomatic disorders) 13

15. Individual Stress
79% of workers report that 1995 was one of the most stressful years ever (Dale Carnegie survey)
Work-related issues were the strongest source of stress
Not doing the type of work you want was the major source of stress
Karoshi (Japanese): “Sudden death by heart attack triggered by overwork”
Japan is high on uncertainty avoidance, thus working hard is one way to reduce uncertainty because the harder you work the more productive your company should be

16. How Employee Stress Can Impact the Organization
Participative Problems - a cost associated with absenteeism, tardiness, strikes & work stoppages, & turnover
Performance Decrement - a cost resulting from poor quality or low quantity of production, grievances, & unscheduled machine downtime & repair
Compensation Award - an organizational cost resulting from court awards for job distress
Organizational stress:
Participative problems: costs associated with absenteeism, work stoppage, and dysfunctional turnover (when an organization loses a valuable employee; functional turnover=when an organization loses an employee with little or no value or is a problem, allowing for new ideas and approaches)
Performance decrement: costs resulting from poor quality or low quantity of production et al.; not entirely caused by stress, but stress can be a factor
Compensation award: costs resulting from court awards for job distress, such as harassment 14

17. Dealing with Stress
Achilles’ heel phenomenon - a person breaks down at his or her weakest point
Some individual differences enhance or reduce a person’s vulnerability to distress. 15

18. Type A Behavior Patterns
Type A Behavior Patterns - a complex of personality and behavior characteristics
sense of time urgency “hurry sickness”
quest for numbers (of achievements)
status insecurity
aggression & hostility expressed in response to frustration & conflict
“Type A” describes a pattern of behavior that includes
Intense competitiveness
Time urgency: a kind of “hurry sickness”
Social status insecurity: feeling unsure of oneself deep down inside
Aggression and Hostility: expressed in response to frustration and conflict
Quest for achievement: success measured in number of achievements 17

19. Personality Hardiness
Personality Hardiness - a personality resistant to distress & characterized by the 3 C’s:
CHALLENGE (versus threat)
Disruptions that create stress in others are instead viewed as an opportunity for growth rather than a threat to security
This is a great challenge – stress is viewed as a necessary step toward learning
People who have PERSONALITY HARDINESS resist strain reactions under stress more effectively than people who are not hardy.
3 C’s:
CHALLENGE: view change as a stimulus to personal development, openly experience activities
<next slide> 18

20. Personality Hardiness, cont’d
COMMITMENT (versus alienation)
Believe in importance of what they do
Sense of purpose to their activities
Recall, the most prevalent source of stress was not doing the type of work you want
CONTROL (versus powerlessness)
Feeling in control of your life
COMMITMENT: a curiosity and engagement with the environment that results in experiences of enjoyment, not doing the type of work you want leaves you with little purpose and importance
CONTROL: the ability to influence the course of action, the process and outcomes of events, and to experience activities as personal choices

21. Individual Stress Management
Time
Management
Physical
Exercise
INDIVIDUAL STRESS MANAGEMENT includes the activities of
Time management
Physical exercise
Relaxation training
And Social Support
Social
Support
Relaxation
Training
Prentice-Hall, 2001, Ch. 18

22. Social Support at Work & Home
Organizational
Supervisor
Colleagues
Subordinates
Clients
Family
Spouse Children
Parents In-laws
Church
Minister/Rabbi
Friends
Support groups
Individual
Professional
Physicians
Psychologists
Counselors
Lawyers
Key elements of a person’s work and nonwork social support systems:
Provide emotional caring
Information
Evaluative feedback
Modeling
Instrumental support
Clubs
Business associations
Social clubs
Athletic groups
SOURCE: From J. C. Quick J. D. Quick, D. L. Nelson and J. J. Hurrell, Jr., in Preventive Stress Management in Organizations, 1997, p Copyright© 1997 by The American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission. 24

23. Preventative Stress Management
Preventative Stress Management - an organizational philosophy that holds that people & organizations should take joint responsibility for promoting health and preventing distress & strain
Primary Prevention - designed to reduce, modify, or eliminate the demand or stressor causing stress
Secondary Prevention - designed to alter or modify the individual’s or the organization’s response to a demand or stressor
Tertiary Prevention - designed to heal individual or organizational symptoms of distress & strain
PRIMARY PREVENTION addresses the reduction of stress.
SECONDARY PREVENTION addresses the response to stress.
TERTIARY PREVENTION addresses the healing of distress. 20

24. Individual Preventive Stress Management
People can use self-directed methods of preventing distress and enhancing well-being: (p. 234)
PRIMARY PREVENTION:
Positive thinking: optimistic, nonnegative self-talk that reduces depression
Time management: improves planning and prioritizes activities
Leisure time activity: balances work and nonwork activities
SECONDARY PREVENTION:
Physical exercise: improves cardiovascular function and muscular flexibility
Relaxation training: lowers all indicators of the stress response
Diet: lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease and improves overall physical health
TERTIARY PREVENTION:
Opening up: releases internalized traumas and emotional tensions
Professional help: provides information, emotional support, and therapeutic guidance 25

25. Organizational Stress Prevention
Focuses on people’s work demands
Focuses on ways to reduce distress at work
Most organizational prevention is primary
job redesign
goal setting
role negotiation
social support systems
“The experience of organizational justice and fairness is emerging as one contextual factor at work that leads to a positive low-stress environment.”
JOB REDESIGN: high demand and restricted control leads to job strain
Increase job decision latitude: sequencing of work activities, selection of work teams
Reduce uncertainty in the workplace
GOAL SETTING: focuses attention and directs energy into productive activities
Increase task motivation
Assumes people accept their work goals
ROLE NEGOTIATION: allows people to modify their work roles
Negotiation based on self-definition of work role plus others’ expectations of the person in that focal role
Compare expectations, address conflict, negotiate agreeable definition of focal role
SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS: at work include
Team building
Interpersonal communications 22

26. Organization Stress Management
Employee Assistance
Programs
Wellness
Programs
Job
Redesigning
ORGANIZATION STRESS MANAGEMENT can include
Employee assistance programs
Wellness programs
Organizational communications
Selection and placement activities
Job redesigning
And employee involvement
Organizational
Communication
Employee
Involvement
Selection
and Placement
Prentice-Hall, 2001, Ch. 18

27. Discussion Questions
Why should organizations help individuals manage stress?
Isn’t stress basically the individual’s responsibility?

28. Discussion Questions
Is there more stress today than in past generations?
What evidence is available concerning this question?