1. Retrieving High Precision River Stage and Slope from Space E. Rodriguez, D. Moller Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology

2. Surface Water Measurement Requirements (Alsdorf & Lettenmaier, Science, 2003) 5-10 cm height accuracy (need height change for storage change, not absolute height) –River discharge, wetland/lake storage change Map rivers > 100m width –Would like to go to smaller rivers River slope accuracy: 10  rad (1cm/1km) –River discharge Revisit time: –Ideal: 3 days in the Arctic, 7 days in the tropics –Acceptable: 7 days in the arctic, 21 days in the tropics Imager with resolution better than 100 m –River width, wetland/lake extent –Should distinguish vegetated/non-vegetated Global coverage, sampling all major contributors to surface water, is not affected by clouds –Wetlands, rivers, lakes in tropics, Arctic thaw

3. Surface Water Interferometer Concept Ka-band SAR interferometric system with 2 swaths, 10km- 60km on each side of the nadir track Produces heights and co- registered all-weather imagery 200 MHz bandwidth (0.75 cm range resolution) for highr resolution imaging Uses near-nadir returns for SAR altimetry to fill in nadir swath No data compression onboard

4. 16 Day Repeat Coverage 120 km Swath Pulse Limited Swath Global Lake Coverage Histogram Global River Coverage Histogram

5. Visits/Cycle for Major Rivers

6. Visits/Cycle for Major Lakes

7. Interferometric Measurement Concept Conventional altimetry measures a single range and assumes the return is from the nadir point For swath coverage, additional information about the incidence angle is required to geolocate Interferometry is basically triangulation Baseline B forms base (mechanically stable) One side, the range, is determined by the system timing accuracy The difference between two sides (  r) is obtained from the phase difference (  ) between the two radar channels.  = 2  r  = 2  sin  h = H - r cos 

8. Simulated Interferometer Return The interferometer return signal contains both radar brightness (for water boundary delineation), range, and phase (color) for height estimation Image geolocation accuracy given by timing accuracy, not platform attitude, unlike optical imager Range Along-track Position

9. Interferometer Height and Slope Precision Height and slope estimates are made by using radar image to isolate water body and fitting a best fit linear height change over the swath. Precision depends on water brightness and the length and width of the imaged water body

10. Attenuation Effects at Ka-Band Rain rate mm/hr35 GHz Attenuation (5-km path) 36 dB 511.5 dB 1024 dB 2050 dB 3073 dB 100215 dB WatER will only be able to collect valid data at rain rates smaller than 3-5 mm/hr (depending on surface water brightness) Walsh, et al., Rain and Cloud Effects on a Satellite Dual-Frequency Radar Altimeter System Operating at 13.5 and 35 GHz, IEEE Trans. GRS, 22, 1984

11. Rain Probability Petersen WA, Nesbitt SW, Blakeslee RJ, et al. TRMM observations of intraseasonal variability in convective regimes over the Amazon JOURNAL OF CLIMATE 15 (11): 1278-1294 JUN 1 2002 The total WatER data loss, if data were uncorrelated with time of day, will be less than 10% in the tropics. Similar numbers also hold at other latitudes.

12. Radar Layover and its Effect on Interferometry Brightness Ratio (land darker than water) Correlation Ratio (land less correlated than water) Volumetric Layover (trees) Surface Layover Points on dashed line arrive at the same time

13. Amazon Tree Layover Simulation-1 Amazon vegetation/water mask courtesy of L. Hess, UCSB

14. Amazon Tree Layover Simulation-2 Assumed tree height: 20 m Fraction of land which is tree covered: 100%

15. What is the Global Topographic Layover Probability?

16. Ohio River Valley Topographic Layover Example-1 Cross-track range Along Track

17. Ohio River Valley Topographic Layover Example-2

18. Referencing River/Wetland Height to Land Source: S. Kheim, JPL Range delay variability from ground measurements Roll/systematic phase and tropospheric range errors prevent absolute centimetric referencing relative to the center of the Earth Solution: The main effect of these errors is to introduce long wavelength tilts and biases. Use existing DEM’s (or DEM’s derived during the mission)for least squares adjustments so that height will be referenced to DEM (not Earth center) Disadvantage: DEM’s may have systematic errors. However, these errors will be the same for all passes and will cancel when making time series of change (=> storage change) Tropospheric delays have correlation distances > 50 km. Order of magnitude slope biases: 5cm/50km ~ 1cm/10km. Amazon slope: 1cm/1km larger by one order of magnitude.

19. Backups

20. Data Loss vs Time of Day In non-tropical regions, the correlation between time of day and rain events is weak –Rainfall dominated by fronts –Data loss expected to be < 10% Tropical rainfall is governed by convective instabilities which arise due to daytime heating –Thunderstorms tend to happen in the late afternoon or evening –Rainfall pattern is patchy –Correlation distance between rain events < 50 km to 100 km –6 am is near the rainfall probability minimum, while 6 pm is close to the rainfall probability maximum –See results below for more details

21. Spatial Distribution of Rain Cells-1

22. Local Time of Maximum Precipitation Monthly Weather Review, 129, 2001

23. Rainfall vs Time of Day Journal of Climate, 16, 2003 Amazon/LBA Southeast US Monthly Weather Review, 108, 1980