1. Causal-Comparative Research Research that is interested in learning if there is a relationship between or among variables that is causal in nature (i.e. does one variable cause a given outcome).

2. Causal-Comparative Research Characteristics  Is either retrospective or prospective.  The independent variable is not (nor should it be) manipulated by the researcher.  The groups are already formed.  Differences between the groups is not brought on by the researcher.  Typically explore & compare one independent variable.

3. Causal-Comparative Research Limitations  Lack of researcher control.  An apparent cause and effect relationship may not be what it seems.  Causes and effects may be reversed.  An external third factor may actually be responsible for both the hypothesized case and the hypothesized effect.  The results are, at best, tentative in most cases.  Requires repeated measures to yield definitive results.

4. Causal-Comparative Research Designs  Matched Pairs – the researcher decides to match subjects in the experimental control groups on some variable.  Comparison of Homogeneous Groups or Subgroups – select groups that meet the criteria of the extraneous variable.  Analysis of Covariance – a statistical procedure used to make the groups equal on one or more variables.