1. Chapter 3 Applying Learning Theories to Healthcare Practice

2. LEARNING
Learning: a relatively permanent change in mental processing, emotional functioning, and behavior as a result of experience
Learning Theory: a coherent framework of integrated constructs and principles that describe, explain, or predict how people learn

3. CONTRIBUTION OF LEARNING THEORIES
Provides information and techniques to guide teaching and learning
Can be employed individually or in combination
Can be applied in a variety of settings as well as for personal growth and interpersonal relations

4. Application Questions to Keep in Mind
How does learning occur?
What kinds of experiences facilitate or hinder the process?
What held ensure that learning becomes permanent?

5. BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Concepts: stimulus conditions, reinforcement, response, drive
To change behavior, change the stimulus conditions in the environment and the reinforcement after a response

6. Behaviorist Dynamics Motivation: drives to be reduced, incentives
Educator: active role; manipulates environmental stimuli and reinforcements to direct change
Transfer: practice and provide similarity in stimulus conditions and responses with a new situation

7. Respondent Conditioning
Learning occurs as the organism responds to stimulus conditions and forms associations
A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus–unconditioned response connection until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response

8. Operant Conditioning
Learning occurs as the organism responds to stimuli in the environment and is reinforced for making a particular response.
A reinforcer is applied after a response strengthens the probability that the response will be performed again under similar conditions.

9. Changing Behavior Using Operant Conditioning
To increase behavior
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement (escape or avoidance conditioning)
To decrease behavior
nonreinforcement
punishment

10. Advantages of Behaviorism
Highly structured situations
Skills training in which steps and sequences can be clearly delineated

11. Disadvantages of Behaviorism
Instruction is mechanistic
Minimizes student involvement in learning
Inappropriate for complex mental processes, problem-solving, and critical thinking

12. COGNITIVE THEORY
Concepts: cognition, gestalt, perception, developmental stage, information-processing, memory, social constructivism, social cognition, attributions
To change behavior, work with the developmental stage and change cognitions, goals, expectations, equilibrium, and ways of processing information

13. Cognitive Dynamics
Motivation: goals, expectations, disequilibrium, cultural and group values
Educator: organize experiences and make them meaningful; encourage insight and reorganization within learner
Transfer: focus on internal processes and provide common patterns with a new situation

14. Gestalt Perspective
Perception and the patterning of stimuli (gestalt) are the keys to learning, with each learner perceiving, interpreting, and reorganizing experiences in her/his own way
Learning occurs through the reorganization of elements to form new insights and understanding

15. Information-Processing Perspective
The way individuals perceive, process, store, and retrieve information from experiences determines how learning occurs and what is learned.
Organizing information and making it meaningful aids the attention and storage process; learning occurs through guidance, feedback, and assessing and correcting errors.
Focus on describing the way information is tracked, the sequence of mental operations, and the results of operations.

16. Cognitive Development Perspective
Learning depends on the stage of cognitive functioning, with qualitative, sequential changes in perception, language, and thought occurring as children and adults interact with the environment.
Recognize the developmental stage and provide appropriate experiences to encourage discovery.

17. Social Constructivist Perspective
A person’s knowledge may not necessarily reflect reality, but through collaboration and negotiation, new understanding is acquired.
Learning is development
Assimilation, accommodation, & construction are part of learning

18. Social Constructivist Perspective ( cont)
Learning is heavily influenced by the culture and occurs as a social process in interaction with others.
A learner constructs new knowledge by building on internal representations of existing knowledge thru personal interpretation of experience.

19. Social Cognition Perspective
An individual’s perceptions, beliefs, and social judgments are affected strongly by social interaction, communication, groups, and the social situation.
Individuals formulate causal explanations to account for behavior that have significant consequences for their attitudes and actions (attribution theory).

20. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Concepts: role modeling, vicarious reinforcement, self-system, self-regulation
To change behavior, utilize effective role models who are perceived to be rewarded, and work with the social situation and the learner’s internal self-regulating mechanisms

21. Social Learning Dynamics
Motivation: compelling role models perceived to be rewarded, self-system regulating behavior, self-efficacy
Educator: model behavior and demonstrate benefits; encourage active learner to regulate and reproduce behavior
Transfer: similarity of setting, feedback, self-efficacy, social influences

22. COGNITIVE THEORY-Advantages
Use of intellectual development gives teacher ↑ professional & personal satisfaction
↑ satisfaction in relationship with learner
↑ Increased use of a variety of instructional strategies → teacher creativity
↑ learner satisfaction as move into improved cognitive ability & look forward to more challenging/ stimulating life
↑ Critical thinking in learner

23. COGNITIVE THEORY-Disadvantages
↑ time & energy by teacher to become knowledgeable about different viewpoints
Students stressed if looking for certainty or absolute answers

24. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
Concepts: stage of personality development, conscious and unconscious motivations, ego-strength, emotional conflicts, defense mechanisms
To change behavior, work to make unconscious motivations conscious, build ego-strength, and resolve emotional conflicts

25. Psychodynamic Dynamics
Motivation: libido, life force, death wish, pleasure principle, reality principle, conscious and unconscious conflicts, developmental stage, defenses
Educator: reflective interpreter; listen and pose questions to stimulate insights
Transfer: remove barriers such as resistance, transference reactions, and emotional conflicts

26. HUMANISTIC THEORY
Learning occurs on the basis of a person’s motivation, derived from needs, the desire to grow in positive ways, self-concept, and subjective feelings.
Learning is facilitated by caring facilitators and a nurturing environment that encourage spontaneity, creativity, emotional expression, and positive choices.

27. Humanist Dynamics
Education motivates student to develop their potential & progress to self-actualization
Motivation: needs, desire to grow, self-concept
Educator: act as facilitator who respects learner’s uniqueness and provides freedom to feel, express, and grow creatively
Transfer: positive or negative feelings and choices as well as freedom to learn, promote, or inhibit transfer

28. HUMANISTIC THEORY- Advantages
Focuses on honesty, Integrity, manners, respect for others, & accepting responsibility for self-development
Students engage in all aspects of learning experiences—teachable moments
Appropriate for learning critical thinking, problem solving, & different points of view.

29. HUMANISTIC THEORY- Disadvantages
Direction by faculty is necessary to ensure all domains of learning are adequately addressed.

30. Neuropsychology and Learning
Brain and nervous system information processing
Neurological conditions, mental health issues, and learning disabilities
Relationship between stress and learning
Integration of learning theories

31. Generalizations about Learning
Learning is a function of developmental changes
Brain processing is different for each learner
Learning is active, multifaceted and complex
Stress can interfere with or stimulate learning

32. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES (external)
stimulus conditions and configuration of elements
social and cultural influences
role models, experts, and guides
reinforcements
feedback

33. LEARNER INFLUENCES (internal)
developmental stage
habits
perception
thoughts and reasoning
schema
ways of processing information
memory storage

34. LEARNER INFLUENCES (internal)
conscious and unconscious motivation
self-regulation
subjective feelings
self-concept
expectations
goals
needs

35. How to promote change
Relate to what learner knows and is familiar with
Keep experiences simple, organized, and meaningful
Motivate learner (deprivation, goals, disequilibrium, needs, tension)
May need incentives and rewards, but not always

36. How to promote change
Experiences must be at the appropriate developmental level
Make learning pleasurable, not painful
Demonstrate by guidance and attractive role models

37. How to make learning relatively permanent
Relate experiences to learner
Reinforce behavior
Rehearse and practice in variety of settings
Have learner perform and give constructive feedback
Make sure interference does not occur before, during, or after learning

38. How to make learning relatively permanent (cont’d)
Promote transfer
Have learner mediate and act on experience in some way (visualize, memory devices, discuss, talk, discuss, write, motor movement)

39. State of the Research Evidence
Tests and modifies theories, methods, and assumptions
Challenges conventional wisdom and myths
Interdisciplinary focus is beneficial
Lack of resources is hindrance

40. Questions to Consider In what ways do the learning theories differ?
In what ways are they similar?
How can the learning theories be used in combination to change behavior and enhance learning?
Why are some theories more effective with certain individuals than with others?