1. Cell Biology RADL 70 Kyle Thornton This material will not be covered in class, but will be on the midterm exam.

2. Note: This material will not be covered in class, but will be on the midterm exam.

3. Properties Of A Cell  All living things are made up of protoplasm A thick viscous, suspension substance that constitutes the physical basis of all living activities  The smallest unit of protoplasm is the cell  Most responses to radiation occur first at the cellular level All radiation damage is at the cellular or subcellular level

4. Cell Properties  Assimilation  Growth  Motility  Secretion  Irritability  Reproduction

5. The Levels Of Organization  Simple life forms consist of one cell  More complex forms are made up of many types of cells  Cells are modified and specialized for specific activities Muscle cells Designed for contraction Red blood cells Carry oxygen to body tissues Nerve cells Receive and send electrical impulses

6. Levels Of Organization  Groups of cells that perform the same activity are tissues Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous  Groups of tissues that perform a specialized function are organs The stomach – composed primarily of epithelial and muscle tissue  A group of organs form a system Consists of organs working together to perform a specific function GI or Respiratory system  The organism is the highest level of organization A living being

7. Chemical Components Of A Cell  Organic compounds Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen  Inorganic compounds Salts, water, minerals  Both are suspended or dissolved in water Water makes up 80% of a cell Water helps hold and transport substances in the cell Chemical activities take place in the cell Water helps maintain constant temperature  Without water, cells would be vulnerable to extreme changes in temperature

8. Cell Physiology  Cells move water in and out by osmosis  The amount is determined by osmotic pressure  Osmotic pressure is determined by the concentration of mineral salts inside or outside of the cell  Too much water can rupture a cell  Too little water can make a cell collapse  Either way, the cell cannot complete its biological function

9. Osmotic Pressure  Too little sodium inside the cell, or too little potassium outside the cell will cause water to be pulled outside the cell causing collapse  Hypertonic A solution that causes a cell to shrink  Hypotonic A solution that causes a cell to swell  Isotonic Having an osmotic pressure equal to that of circulating blood

10. Benefits of Mineral Compounds and Salts  Mineral compounds prevent cramping  Salts aid in the production of energy and the conduction of nerve impulses

11. The Major Classes Of Organic Compounds  Proteins  Lipids  Carbohydrates  Nucleic Acids

12. Proteins  Macromolecules – Polymers Large molecules formed by joining together simple units known as monomers into a long chain Make up about 15% of a cell Considered the building block of a cell Integral to structure of skin, bone, tendons, ligaments, hair, silk, and collagen

13. Protein Functions  Building of new tissue  Repair of injured or broken down tissue  Intercellular messengers  Composition of enzymes Enzymes are large protein molecules that control the speed of most chemical reactions inside the cell

14. Other Protein Functions  Protect the organism as it makes up antibodies Antibodies protect the organism from infections and are essential to clotting and wound repair  Transfer information from one cell to surrounding cells Help maintain the well-being of the organism  Made up of enzymes Essential to the chemical release of energy from food

15. Amino Acids  The basic composition of proteins  About 80 are found in nature, 20 are essential to humans

16. Lipids  Fats Makes up about 2% of a cell  Excess energy is stored for later use  Sugar molecules, from which cells usually get their energy, are converted into lipids for storage if not needed for current use  Lipids are not water soluble, but are in alcohol, ether, oil, and chloroform

17. Classifications Of Lipids  Those stored in the inside the cell for energy  Those used to form the cell membranes and as a thermal cushion Also for production of steroids, cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen  Long chain lipids important for pigmentation such as eye color  A type of fatty acid involved with muscle contraction, blood vessel constriction, cell reproduction, and inflammatory response

18. Functions Of Lipids  Storage of energy  Integral component of cell membrane  Protection against cold and heat  Assistance in digestive process  Components of substances such as hormones

19. Carbohydrates  Make up about 1% of the cell  Provide most of the cell’s energy  Sugars and starches are typical carbohydrates  Stored primarily in the liver and muscles  They release large amounts of energy when the bonds are broken through metabolism

20. Classifications of Carbohydrates  Monosaccharides Glucose or fructose Primary source of cell energy  Disaccharides Sucrose, lactose, and maltose Not easily metabolized Storage form of energy that can be converted to glucose and used for energy requirements  Polysaccharides Starch, dextrin, cellulose, and glycogen Used as an energy source Cellulose is used for structural purposes

22. Nucleic Acids  Macromolecules Blueprint for reproduction A template for protein synthesis Transport mechanism to join materials necessary to build proteins Control mechanism to regulate the cell’s metabolism and reproduction Two types of nucleic acids DNA and RNA

23. Cell Structure  Two major sections of the cell Cytoplasm Nucleus Both are filled with protoplasm  Nucleoplasm – protoplasm inside the nucleus  Cytoplasm – protoplasm outside the nucleus Structures within the protoplasm are called organelles  Each organelle has a function necessary for cell health and survival

24. The Cell

25. The Nucleus  Contains the genetic and metabolic information of the cell  Similar to the brain of the organism This controls how that organism functions in its environment

26. Nuclear Components  Nuclear envelope  Chromosomes  Nucleolus  Nuclear sap – the liquid portion of a cell nucleus

27. Nuclear Envelope  Membrane Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm A double-walled structure with a space within the walls The only known materials that can pass through this membrane are RNA’s and some proteins that are incorporated into the nuclear structure

28. Chromosomes  Linear threads in the nucleus  Composed of protein and DNA DNA encodes the information that controls that cell’s metabolism and reproduction DNA is considered the genetic material It serves as a template to produce an exact copy of itself used in cell division  Humans contain 46 (23 pairs) of somatic chromosomes

29. DNA Structure  Consists of deoxyribose Sugar in the backbone  Phosphoric acid A phosphate in the backbone  Four nitrogenous bases Adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine The actual genetic code

30. DNA Structure  DNA looks like a twisted ladder  The bases are the rungs  The backbones are the sides The backbones are made up of sugar, deoxyribose, and phosphoric acid The backbones are twisted around each other, forming a double helix

31. Genes  The basic unit of heredity  Made up of long sequences of DNA on a chromosome  Genes are found in pairs  Some govern the number of organs and limbs  Others determine height, skin and eye color, and gender

32. Nucleolus  A single spherical structure usually found in the nucleus  Composed of RNA (ribonucleic acid) Controls protein synthesis Similar to DNA in structure Its sugar is ribose as opposed to deoxyribose The base uracil replaces thymine It is a single helix

33. DNA v. RNA

34. The Forms Of RNA  Messenger RNA Carries the code for specific amino acid sequences from DNA to cytoplasm for protein synthesis  Transfer RNA Transfer amino acid groups to ribosome for protein synthesis  Ribosomal RNA Exists in the ribosomes Thought to assist in protein synthesis

35. Cytoplasm  All metabolic functions occur here The duplication of DNA, production of hormones, and converting of sugars to starches Anabolism The breaking of the carbon- hydrogen bond to release the energy of glucose Catabolism  These functions are used in energy conversion This serves to store or release energy

36. Cell Membrane  A selectively permeable structure  Analogous to the skin of an organism – a limiting mechanism  Composed of lipids and membranes  Transport proteins assist in the passage of substances through the membrane and throughout the cell

37. Ribosomes  Function to synthesize proteins  Made of ribosomal RNA

38. Endoplasmic Reticulum  A connecting network between the nucleus and cytoplasm  Used to build carbohydrates and lipids and detoxification

39. Mitochondria  The source of energy in the cell  Contain their own DNA  Cardiac muscle cells have the greatest number of mitochondria because of their great need for energy

40. Golgi Apparatus  Located near the nucleus  Collect molecules produced in one part of the cell, modify, or synthesize new molecules, package and distribute them to other parts of the cells  Analogous to the digestive system

41. Lysosomes  Part of the intracellular digestive system  Break down proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids and recycle them  Analogous to the stomach http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ekdIEpSf-1I

42. Location and Function of Organelles

43. Cell Division Somatic Cells  Mitosis  Each daughter cell contains the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell  This cycle has 5 phases Four are cell-reproduction phases Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

44. Interphase  The period between cell division  Three subphases G 1 – The first subphase where the cell spends most of its life and where it grows S – The DNA is replicatedbut stays attached to the centromere – a region in the middle of each chromosome G 2 – The final subphase in which the organelles are reporduced Spiral filaments called chromatids reproduce

45. Prophase  The chromatin granules of the nucleus become organized into chromosomes  Each consist of two chomatids  Chromosomes become shorter and more compact  The nuclear membrane and nucleoli disappear, the centriole divides, and two daughter cells move to opposite poles of the cell

46. Metaphase  The paired chromatids arrange themselves in an equatorial plane midway between the two centrioles forming the plane  Cell division can be stopped and radiation damage can be examined under a microscope

47. Anaphase  The chromotids are now called daughter chromsomes  They move toward their respective centrosomes  The end of their migration marks the beginning of the next phase

48. Telophase  Each daughter cell now contains the same genetic material as the parent cells  Two complete cells result from the cytoplasm’s becoming separated into two parts

49. Mitosis  http://www.cellsalive.c om/mitosis.htm http://www.cellsalive.c om/mitosis.htm

50. The Cell Cycle

51. Germ Cells  Meiosis Cell division that produces germ cells or reproductive cells Consists of two successive divisions of the mother cell Produces four daughter cells Contains only half the number of chromosomes present in somatic cells

52. Malignant Cells  Cancer cells  Divide abnormally and much more often than normal cells  Differ physically from normal cells by virtue of having an increased number of chromatin and an increased ratio of nuclear material to cytoplasm  In normal tissue, cells usually stick together  Some types of cancers metastasize by allowing cells to break free of the tumor cite  Cancer cells show increased mitotic activity  http://www.youtube.co m/watch?v=rrMq8uA_ 6iA http://www.youtube.co m/watch?v=rrMq8uA_ 6iA  http://www.youtube.co m/watch?v=r_2bUhSw dvY http://www.youtube.co m/watch?v=r_2bUhSw dvY

53. Normal Cells v. Cancer Cells

54. Cell Death - Apoptosis  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjjHKDn 12qI http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjjHKDn 12qI

55. Helpful Websites  http://www.des.umd.edu/rs/material/tmsg/rs5.html http://www.des.umd.edu/rs/material/tmsg/rs5.html  http://radtechstudy.nci.nih.gov/ http://radtechstudy.nci.nih.gov/  http://suite101.com/article/understanding-lenzs- law-a54846 http://suite101.com/article/understanding-lenzs- law-a54846 This is actually for 50B, but thought you could use it for Registry review later on  http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc- collections/cfr/part020/part020-1201.html

56. Helpful Websites  http://www.srs.gov/general/pubs/radreport.pd f http://www.srs.gov/general/pubs/radreport.pd f  http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic- ref/glossary/total-effective-dose-equivalent- tede.html http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic- ref/glossary/total-effective-dose-equivalent- tede.html  http://w3.health.state.ny.us/dbspace/NYCRR 10.nsf/0/8525652c00680c3e8525653000653 1d8?OpenDocument http://w3.health.state.ny.us/dbspace/NYCRR 10.nsf/0/8525652c00680c3e8525653000653 1d8?OpenDocument

57. Helpful Websites  http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2009/12/8215/new -research-ct-radiation-exposures-risks-fuels- growing-concern http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2009/12/8215/new -research-ct-radiation-exposures-risks-fuels- growing-concern  http://www.ratical.com/radiation/CNR/PP/ch p2.html http://www.ratical.com/radiation/CNR/PP/ch p2.html  http://www.umich.edu/~radinfo/introduction/ source.htm http://www.umich.edu/~radinfo/introduction/ source.htm

58. Helpful Websites  http://holbert.faculty.asu.edu/eee460/radeffec ts.html http://holbert.faculty.asu.edu/eee460/radeffec ts.html  http://www.radiation-scott.org/radsource/1- 0.htm http://www.radiation-scott.org/radsource/1- 0.htm