1. EUROPEAN MIDDLE AGES
THE CELTS

2. Who were the Celts?
The Iron Age Celts lived in Britain before and after Jesus. We're going back a very, very long time - two thousand years ago, in fact.
Our years are numbered by starting at the year Jesus Christ was born - and the Iron Age Celts lived here 750 years before that. The Iron Age ended in AD43 (43 years after Jesus was born) when the Romans invaded Britain

3. Timeline

4. The name 'Iron Age' comes from the discovery of a new metal called iron. We can find out a lot about the Celts through looking at objects made of iron and other materials which have survived over time, such as the Tal-y-Llyn plaque.
The brass plaque was found in 1963 on Cadair Idris in north Wales. The pair of plaques are decorated with human faces. The faces have staring eyes, and straight hair. Archaeologists believe that the head was greatly respected by the Celts.

5. The Celts lived across most of Europe during the Iron Age
The Celts lived across most of Europe during the Iron Age. Today the Celts live in Wales, Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, Cornwall and in Brittany, France. Their culture lives on in language, music, song and literature.

6. The Evidence
Bog body
Sometimes the clues are found by accident. A digger moving earth in a peat bog in Cheshire found a human body buried deep in a bog. The shocked workmen called the police - they thought the man had been murdered.
The man had been knocked on the head, strangled and his neck had been cut. Imagine their surprise when archaeologists worked out that he was an Iron Age Celt who had been killed 2000 years ago!

7. Only the upper half of the man's body remained
Only the upper half of the man's body remained. Archaeologists found food still in his stomach after 2,000 years! His last meal was bread. Here was a fantastic clue to the world of the Celts, pickled in the bog.
The bog man was naked when his body was found. Unfortunately, evidence like clothes, shoes and pots are rarely found because they rot in the soil. But things made of stone and metal do not rot and these are the clues which tell us about the Celts - but give us only part of the story.

8. Recording events
The early Celts didn't leave books behind because they didn't read and write - word of mouth and memory were the Celts' way of recording events.
But luckily, the Greeks and Romans did write about the Iron Age Celts. They tell us that the Celts lived in tribes, they wore gold and loved to fight and drink wine. They also wrote about the power of the Celts' priests, who were called druids.
The druids knew how to keep their gods happy - they sacrificed food, precious objects, and even people to their gods and goddesses.

9. The Snowdon bowl in the picture was probably a gift to a god or goddess, as it was a valuable, important treasure. The design on the handle of the bronze bowl looks like an animal's head. Two biology students found the bowl's remains in 1974 on the north-east side of Snowdon, north Wales. Archaeologists think the bog body from Cheshire was also a sacrifice to the gods. We can never be absolutely sure what happened in the past though. We can only piece together the clues and, with imagination, work out what happened.

10. The Snowdon

11. Homes
Iron Age Celts lived in houses - but they were very different to the houses we live in today! Large families lived in a roundhouse. The walls were made of daub (straw, mud and tail) and the roof of straw.
Iron firedog
The Celts would light a fire in the middle of the roundhouse for cooking and heating. A farm worker found this iron firedog in 1852 near Llanrwst, north Wales. It was found lying on its side, with a large stone at each end, and deeply buried in peat.
Archaeologists believe it was a gift to one of the Celtic gods or goddesses.
In the roundhouse, firedogs would have been placed as decorations either side of the central fire. Perhaps they showed the status of the family. The blacksmith who made this firedog was very skilled at shaping and working iron. At either end of the firedog is an animal's head and neck - it would have taken a lot of time, effort and skill to make.

12. Iron Firedog

13. Roundhouses
This is a reconstructed Iron Age roundhouse, built on a hillfort site in Castell Henllys, Pembrokeshire.
Iron Age people would have chosen where they lived for different reasons. The chieftain and his family, soldiers and craftsmen, lived in a hillfort because they were easy to defend.
There are over 1000 Iron Age hillforts in Wales. Steep slopes, a high wall and deep ditch helped keep the Celts safe in their homes.
Farmers lived on the land they farmed. Sometimes farms would be built in spots with a good source of water, or fertile ground of good pasture for the animals. The Celts grew corn and kept cows, pigs, horses, goats and sheep.
The hillforts didn't keep the Romans out though and the Celtic tribes were conquered when the Romans invaded in AD43.

14. Roundhouse

15. Metal Work
The name Iron Age comes from the Celts' discovery and use of iron. The clues dug up by archaeologists show how skilled the Iron Age Celts were at making metal objects.
In Wales, the earliest iron objects come from the Llyn Fawr, Rhondda Cynon Taff hoard which dates back to around 750BC. They include a sickle, a sword and a spear.
Jewellery
Archaeologists have found lots of jewellery when digging for clues about the Celts. The Celts used bronze and gold as well as iron. The heads of the tribe would wear fancy jewellery to show how important they were.
The Celtic craftsmen loved symmetrical designs and patterns. They were especially fond of a three-legged (triskeles) shape, like the one on this Iron Age bronze plaque which was found in Llyn Cerrig Bach in Anglesey. The Celts also liked to use animal shapes and faces in their patterns.

16. Jewellery

17. Because archaeologists rarely find clothing, leatherwork or basketwork, we can only guess by looking at the metal and gold and other objects that have survived that the Celts liked bright colours and complicated patterns.
Weapons
Their skill as metal workers was also important when they were defending themselves from their enemies. They needed sharp objects like spears, as well as shields, to defend themselves from enemy attack. The picture shows part of a shield, also decorated with a triskele, which was found in Tal-y-Llyn.

18. Schield

19. Clothes and appearance
The Iron Age Celts' clothes might have looked like the tartan you see in Scotland and Ireland today, with checks and stripes. The Celts used berries and plants to dye the wool different colours.
Not only did the Celts like brightly coloured clothes - the Romans tell us that some of them painted patterns all over their bodies with blue woad made of a special plant.
The Celts' clothes showed their status and importance within the tribe. Men would wear a tunic with a belt, a cloak and trousers. Women wore dresses fastened with brooches.
And if you were an important member of the tribe, you would wear a neck torc of gold, silver or iron, decorated with patterns.

20. Celtic Warrior

21. Soldiers
Roman historians say that Celtic soldiers had white spiky hair. They used lime like we use hair mousse today, and sometimes they tied their hair up in a ponytail. Around their necks they wore gold torcs like big necklaces.
The most famous soldiers wore fancy bronze helmets on their head to show how important they were. Often there were model birds, animals or horns on the helmets which made them even more special. They carried huge shields decorated with signs or patterns.

22. Celtic woman
Tacitus said that Celtic women were as large and frightening as the men. If this is true, no wonder they took part in the fighting too! Bouddicca is a famous female fighter. Chief of the Inceni tribe, she is described as having thick red hair down to her knees - a bit like Fearless Ffion in our Games & Stories, perhaps.
She wore a colourful tunic, a gold torc around her neck and a cape of thick tweed pinned with a brooch. When she went to fight, she held a spear in her hand. She didn't like the Romans and revolted against them.

23. Religion and Belief
Archaeologists believe that the Iron Age Celts had many gods and goddesses and that the Celts worshipped their gods through sacrifice, giving them valuable objects to keep them happy.
But material treasures weren't the only sacrifices - the Iron Age Celts sacrificed (killed) animals, and even humans, to their gods.
The Celts also sacrificed weapons to the gods by throwing them into lakes, rivers and bogs - places they considered special. At Llyn Cerrig Bach, archaeologists have found over 150 objects of bronze and iron, including spears, shields and swords.

24. The Celts paid great respect to the human head
The Celts paid great respect to the human head. Roman historians say they cut off the heads of their ancestors, and even their enemies, and worshipped the skulls.
The Celtic religion was closely tied to the natural world and they worshipped gods in sacred places like lakes, rivers, cliffs and bushes. The moon, the sun and the stars were especially important - the Celts thought that there were supernatural forces in every aspect of the natural world.

25. Druids
The druids were very important in Iron Age society but we know very little about them. They were the Celts' priests, responsible for all sorts of religious ceremonies. They were educated and powerful members of the tribe and were well respected by the other Celts. The main centre of the druids in Britain was Anglesey.
We know a little about the druids from descriptions by Roman historians. The Romans tried to limit the powers of the druids because they were so important in Iron Age society.

26. Why did the Romans invade?
The Romans ruled Gaul (Gallia they called it). Today it's France. In 55 B.C. the Roman General Julius Caesar led his army across the sea from Gaul to Britain. He wanted to make Britain part of Rome's empire. The British Celts fought bravely, and Caesar soon went back to Gaul.
Next year, in 54 B.C. the Romans came back. This time Caesar had 30,000 soldiers. They were surprised to see chariots. The Romans had stopped using chariots in battles. Caesar captured a Celtic hill-fort. Then, again, he went away. He did not think Britain was worth a long war, and he wanted to get back to Rome.
Nearly a hundred years later, in A.D. 43, the Romans returned. Emperor Claudius sent an army to invade Britain. The army had four legions . This time the Romans conquered the southern half of Britain, and made it part of the Roman Empire.

27. The Romans came to Britain nearly 2000 years ago and changed our country. Even today, evidence of the Romans being here, can be seen in the ruins of Roman buildings, forts, roads, and baths can be found all over Britain.
The Romans invaded other countries too. The Roman Empire covered much of Europe, north Africa, and the Middle East.

28. Who were the Romans?
The Romans lived in Rome, a city in the centre of the country of Italy .

30. Who founded Rome?
According to the Roman legend, Romulus was the founder of Rome. Romulus and his twin brother Remus were the sons of the God Mars. When they were very young they were abandoned by the banks of the River Tiber and left to fend for themselves. Luckily for them they were found by a she-wolf who took pity on them fed them with her milk.  The boys were later found by a shepherd who raised them. The boys grew up to be very strong and clever and they decided to build a town on the spot where the Shepherd had found them. They named their town Rome

32. When did the Romans invade Britain?
First invasion - Caesar's first raid
In August 55 B.C. (55 years before Jesus was born) the Roman general, Emperor Julius Caesar invaded Britain. He took with him two Roman legions. After winning several battles against the Celtic tribes (Britons) in south-east England he returned to France.
Second invasion - Caesar's second raid
The following summer (in 54 B.C.) Caesar came to Britain again landing at Walmer near Deal in Kent. This time he brought with him no fewer than five legions (30,000 foot soldiers) and 2,000 cavalrymen (horse riders). This time the Romans crossed the River Thames. After more fighting, the British tribes promised to pay tribute to Rome and were then left in peace for nearly a century.

33. Third and final invasion
Nearly one hundred years later, in 43 A.D. (43 years after Jesus was born), Emperor Claudius organised the final and successful Roman invasion of Britain. General Aulus Plautius led four legions with 25,000 men, plus an equal number of auxiliary soldiers. They crossed the Channel in three divisions, landing at Richborough, Dover, and Lympne.

34. Why did the Romans invade Britain?
Why the Romans came to Britain is not quite certain. Two reasons have been suggested:
The Romans were cross with Britain for helping the Gauls (now called the French) fight against the Roman general Julius Caesar.
They came to Britain looking for riches - land, slaves, and most of all, iron, lead, zinc, copper, silver and gold.

35. How long did the Romans stay in Britain?
The Romans remained in Britain from 43 AD to 410 AD. That is almost four hundred years (four centuries).

36. Why did the Romans leave Britain?
Their homes in Italy were being attacked by fierce tribes and every soldier was needed.

37. What did the Romans call London?
The Romans called London 'Londinium'.
The River Thames was quick way to transport goods between Britain and the Continent. The Romans saw this and built the town of Londinium around the river's main crossing point.

38. Why was the Roman Empire important?
The Romans, even today, play an important part in our lives. Many of the things we do or have originated from the Romans.

39. The Romans gave us
Language The language we used today was developed from the Romans. The Romans spoke and wrote in Latin and many of our words are based on Latin words.
The Calendar Did you know that the calendar we use today is more than 2,000 years old? It was started by Julius Caesar, a Roman ruler. It is based on the movement of the earth around the sun, and so is called the 'solar calendar.' The solar calendar has 365 days a year, and 366 days every leap year, or every fourth year. The names of our months are taken from the names of Roman gods and rulers. The month 'July,' in fact, is named after Julius Caesar himself!

40. Laws and a legal system The laws and ways we determine what to do with someone who is accused of breaking a law came originally from the Roman Empire.
The Census The Roman Empire was huge and included millions of people living over a large area. How did they keep track of all these people? Easy! They counted them! The Roman Empire began the practice of taking a census, or a 'count,' of all the people within its boundaries every so often. Today, many countries like ours take a census every 10 years.

41. The Romans also gave us:
straight roads
central heating
concrete
aqueducts (bridges for water)

42. A BRIEF HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY IN ENGLAND
The first evidence of Christianity in England is from the late 2nd century AD. Roman Britain was a cosmopolitan place. Merchants form all aver the empire settled there and soldiers from many countries served there so we will never know who firs introduced Christianity to England.

43. THE ANGLO- SAXONS
The term Anglo-Saxon is a relatively modern one. It refers to settlers from the German regions of Angeln and Saxony, who made their way over to Britain after the fall of the Roman Empire around AD 410

44. Most of the information we have about the Anglo – Saxons comes from the Anglo – Saxon Chronicle, a yera by year account of all the major events of the time. Among other things it describes the rise and fall of the bishops and kings and the important battles of the period. It begins with the story of Hengist and Horsa in AD 449

45. Anglo – Saxon rule came to an end in 1066, soon after the death of Edward the Confessor, who had no heir. He had supposedly willed the kingdom to William of Normandy, but also seemed to favour Harold Godwinson as his successor.