1. Head of State v. Head of Government United Kingdom Head of State = King/Queen Head of Government = Prime Minister Israel/Germany Head of State = President (ceremonial) Head of Government = Prime Minister

2. Head of State Powers Retained by President Appointing/Receiving Ambassadors Granting Pardons/Commutations Appointing Public Officials (in consultation w/ Senate)

3. Presidency in relation to King British monarchy in decline at time of Constitution Glorious Revolution of 1688 1766 – Parliament’s veto of Royal ban on wheat exports as first true sign of legislative superiority

4. Presidency in relation to King Office created after struggle against King George III - and effort to gain representation in Parliament Early state legislatures were also quite strong relative to governors – reaction to royal governors

5. The Modern Presidency Greatly expanded powers 1.“Imperial Presidency” – increased importance of foreign affairs/military 2.Expansion in size of government 3.Congressional tendency to delegate 4.Singularity makes for better focus with modern media

6. “Fourth Branch” Agencies Legislative Powers Executive Powers Judicial Powers Administrative Rulemaking Implement Polices Enforce Regulations Adjudicate disputes Impose Sanctions

7. Deficit Control Act of 1986 Passes Budget Congress Prepare Estimates of Necessary Cuts OMB CBO Uses both estimates to prepare final rescission order for President’s signature Comptroller General

8. Mistretta v. U.S. (1989) Congress hopes to address variation in criminal sentencing in federal court Delegates authority to set sentencing guidelines, within statutorily established limits Membership of Commission includes a minimum of 3 federal judges (of 7) Challenge was to Art. III judges “legislating”