1. CHAPTER 6 Communication

2. The Titles Basic Models of Communication
What is Communicated during Negotiation?
How People Communicate in Negotiation?
How to Improve Communication in Negotiation
Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations
Chapter Summary

3. 1. Basic Models of Communication
An early and influential model conceptualized communication as an activity that occurs between two people: a sender and a receiver.
A sender has a thought or meaning in mind. The sender encodes this meaning into a message is then transmitted to a receiver.
The receivers decode the message and reach their own understanding of what the sender said.
Distortion in Communication.

4. Distortion in Communication
(1) Senders and receivers each have goals and objectives, things they want to accomplish.
(2) Transmitters and receptors are the means through which information is sent and received.
(3) Messages are symbolic forms by which information is communicated.
(4) Encoding is the process by which messages are put into symbolic form.
(5) Channels are the conduits by which messages are carried from one party to another.
(6) Decoding is the process of translating messages from their symbolic form into a form that makes sense.
(7) Meanings are the fact, ideas, feelings, reactions, or thoughts that exit within individuals and act as a set of filters for interpreting the decode messages.
(8) Feedback is the process by which the receiver reacts to the sender’s messages.

5. 2. What is Communicated during Negotiation
Five different categories of communication take place in the negotiation:
Offers, Counteroffers, and Motives
Information about Alternatives
Information about Outcomes
Social Accounts
Communication about Process
Is more Information Always Better?

6. Is more Information Always Better ?
Receiving too much information during the negotiation may actually be detrimental to negotiators, this is sometimes called the information-is-weakness effects.
Having more information does not automatically translate into better negotiation outcomes.
The effect of exchanging information during negotiation depends on the types of issues being discussed and the negotiators’ motivation to use the information.

7. 3. How People Communicate in Negotiation
While it may seem obvious that how negotiators communicate is as important as what they have to say, research has examined different aspects of how people communicate in negotiation.
We address three aspects related to the “how” of communication: the characteristic of language that communicators use, the use of non-verbal communication, and the selection of a communication channel for sending and receiving messages.

8. 3.1 Use of Language
In negotiation, language operates at two levels: the logical level and the pragmatic level.
We often react not only to the substance of a threatening statement but also to its unspoken messages. Gibbons, Bradac, and Busch identify five linguistic dimensions of making threats.
Whether the intent is to command and compel, sell, or gain commitment, how parties communicate in negotiation would seem to depend on the ability of speaker to encode thoughts properly, as well as on the ability of the listener to understand and decode the intended messages.
A negotiators choice of words may not only signal a position but also shapes and predict it.

9. 3.2 Use of Nonverbal Communication
Make Eye Contact
In general, making eye contact is one way to show others you are paying attention and listening and that you consider them important.
Adjust Body Position
To ensure that others know you are attentive to them, hold your body erect, lean lightly forward, and face the other person directly.
Nonverbally Encourage or Discourage What the Other Says
Face-to-face interaction stimulated rapport through nonverbal communication, which in turn enhanced coordination and led to higher joint gains.

10. 3.3 Selection of a Communication Channel
The use of a particular channel shapes both perceptions of the communication task at hand and norms regarding appropriate behavior; accordingly, channel variations have potentially important effects on negotiation process and outcomes.
Thompson and Nadler(2002) identified four biases that can threaten negotiations:
(1) Temporal synchrony bias
(2) Burned bridge bias
(3) Squeaky wheel bias
(4) Sinister attribution

11. 4. How to Improve Communication in Negotiation
Researches has consistently demonstrated that even those parties whose goals are compatible or integrative may fail to reach agreement or reach suboptimal agreements because of the misperceptions of the other party or because of breakdowns in the communication process.
Three main techniques are available for improving communication in negotiation: the use of questions, listening and role reversal.

12. 4.1 Use of Questions
Questions are essential elements in negotiations for securing information; asking good questions enables negotiators to secure a great deal of information about the other party’s position, supporting arguments, and needs.
Nierenberg proposed that questions could be divided into two basic categories: those that are manageable and those that are unmanageable and cause difficulty.

13. 4.2 Listening There are three major forms of listening:
(1) Passive listening
(2) Acknowledgement
(3) Active listening
Athos and Gabarro(1978) note that successful reflective responding is a critical part of active listening.
By recommending active listening, we are suggesting that it is a skill that encourages people to seek more fully about their feelings, priorities, frames of references, and, by extension, the positions they are taking.

14. 4.3 Role Reversal
Role reversal may be useful tool for improving communication and the accurate understanding and appreciation of the other party’s position in negotiation.
This may be most useful during the preparing stage of negotiation or during a team caucus when things are not going well.
However, increasing understanding does not necessarily lead to easy resolution of conflict, particularly when accurate communication reveals a fundamental incompatibility in the position of two sides.

15. 5. Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations
Avoiding Fatal Mistakes
Such decision making process can be divided into four key elements: framing, gathering intelligence, coming to conclusions, and learn from feedback.
Achieving Closure
Karrass enjoins negotiator to know “when to shut up”, to avoid surrendering important information needlessly, and to refrain from making “dumb remarks” that push a wavering counterpart away from the agreement he or she is almost ready to endorse.

16. 6. Chapter Summary
In this chapter we have considered elements of the art and science of communication that are relevant to understanding negotiation.
We began with models that show communication as prone to error and distortion. Then moved to discuss of what is communicated during negotiation.
In the final two sections of the chapter we considered: (1) how to improve communication in negotiation, (2) special communication considerations at the close of negotiation.