1. Social Cognitive Theories of Exercise Behaviour Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 2

2. Outline Social cognitive models of exercise behaviour
Social Cognitive Theory
Health Belief Model
Protection Motivation Theory
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Self-Determination Theory
Transtheoretical model

3. Recall…
The problem
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diseases related to physical inactivity
Physical activity shown to reduce risk to CVD and other diseases
Low levels of physical activity among populations in industrialised countries

4. Role of Exercise Psychology
Exercise psychologists aim to:
Identify the influential variables (antecedents) that predict physical activity behaviour and
Develop a strategy to manipulate such variables and bring about a behaviour change in levels of physical activity

5. The Problem of Exercise Adherence
While many people start exercise regimes, up to 50% relapse
Participation Rate
Months
Source: Dishman (1994)

6. The Problem of Exercise Adherence
Steep drop-off in exercise participation after 6 months
Sallis et al. (1990) survey found up to 40% of exercisers had a ‘relapse’
20% had more than 3 relapses
Reasons?
Dishman and Buckworth (1997): “People need self-regulatory skills”

7. A Theoretical Approach to Exercise Behaviour-Models of Social Cognition
Assumption that physical activity is a voluntary behaviour under the ‘control’ of the individual, but also external stimuli
Atheoretical approaches made no such assumptions and are also limited because:
No framework for hypothesis testing
Descriptive - interactions neglected
No ‘starting point’ for modification
Variable ‘fishing expeditions’

8. Further Assumptions
Self-reports of beliefs and expectations are reliable
People are rational decision-makers
People are information processors
Influential variables can be modified but PROCESS can also be identified

9. Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura (1986, 1997)
OVERT BEHAVIOUR
e.g. Verbal Responses
Motor Responses
Social Interactions
PERSONAL FACTORS
e.g. Cognitive abilities
Beliefs and attitudes
ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS
e.g. Physical surroundings
Family and Friends
Other social influences
Key concepts:
Reciprocal determinism
Self-efficacy

10. Social Cognitive Theory
Reciprocal determinism: Personal, behavioural and environmental factors act as mutual causes of each other
Self-efficacy: Situation specific self-confidence – beliefs that one can execute the behaviour
Outcome expectancies: Beliefs that behaviour will result in salient outcomes

11. Health Belief Model (HBM)
Schematic Representation
Beliefs about Health Threat
General Health Values
(“I am concerned about my health”)
Perceived Vulnerability
(“If I don’t exercise, I may have a heart attack”)
Readiness
“I will exercise”
Perceived Severity
(“If I have heart attack, I might die”
Beliefs that Specific Behaviour can
Reduce Threat
Perceived Barriers
“There are things that are likely to get in the way
of exercising regularly”
Perceived Benefits of Behaviour Change
Exceed Costs
“Even though it will take a lot of effort to exercise regularly,
it’s worth it to avoid a heart attack”
Source: Rosenstock (1974)

12. Summary of Research on HBM
Research has shown that…
Perceived severity
Beliefs about the benefits of the health behaviour
…are strong predictors of readiness to engage in the behaviour (Quine et al., 1998; Abraham et al., 1999)
Only small effects for perceived…
vulnerability ▪ benefits
severity ▪ barriers
susceptibility
Limited as it does not account for all influences (e.g., self-efficacy)
Also focuses on beliefs that are not relevant to many

13. Protection Motivation Theory (PMT)
Schematic representation
Sources of
information
Cognitive mediating processes
Behaviour
Environmental
Communication
Observation
Learning
Threat appraisal
Perceived vulnerability
Perceived severity
Fear
Maladaptive coping
Avoidance
Denial
Fatalism
Wishful thinking
Hopelessness
Protection
Motivation
Health
Protective
Behaviour
Intrapersonal
Personality
variables
Prior Experience
Coping appraisal
Perceived self-efficacy
Perceived response-efficacy
Perceived response-cost
Source: Rogers (1983)

14. Summary of Research on PMT
PMT predicts that people will be motivated to exercise (respond) if they …
Believe a disease to be severe and likely to occur (vulnerability)
Perceive that the health behaviour is effective in reducing the health threat (response efficacy) , is something they feel capable of doing (self-efficacy), and does not cost a lot (response cost)
In exercise, self-efficacy, response efficacy, vulnerability, threat appraisals, and coping appraisals are influential in changing protection motivation (Milne et al., 2002)
However, effects of coping and threat appraisal have been modest

15. Interventions Based on HBM and PMT
Attempts have been made to change …
Threat appraisals
Coping appraisals
Threat appraisals: Manipulated using fear-arousing communications emphasizing
Painful effects of illness (heart disease) (severity)
People who do not exercise are more likely to suffer from heart disease (vulnerability)
Coping appraisals: Manipulated by providing information on (1) effectiveness of exercise and (2) providing exercises that are easy to do to promote self-efficacy
Milne et al. (2000) found that such an intervention changed exercise intentions but not behaviour

16. Theory of Reasoned Action in Exercise
General orientation towards physical activity
“good-bad”,“useful-useless”,“harmful-beneficial”
Self-reported exercise
behaviour
Attitudes
Intentions
Stated volitional motives
“I plan…/I intend.../ I expect...”
Behaviour
Subjective
Norms
Evaluation of significant others’ evaluation
“my mum thinks…”,”my teacher thinks…”
Source: Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)

17. Examples of TRA Questionnaire Items
I intend to participate in vigorous physical activities for 20 minutes at a time at least three times per week in the next fortnight. (Please tick one box)
Extremely likely
Very likely
Likely
Unlikely
Very unlikely
Extremely unlikely 
For me, doing vigorous physical activities for 20 minutes at a time at least three times per week in the next fortnight is…(Please tick one box)
Good
Bad 

18. Types of Measures in the TRA
Direct measures: Questions relating to the core TRA components – as in previous example
Indirect measures: using expectancy x value model
Expectancy x value model: Psychological constructs comprise a belief and a strength or value component for form a combined measure
Multiplicative composites: The product of expectancy x value components

19. Theory of Reasoned Action in Exercise
Multiplicative composite of behavioural belief
(expectancy) and outcome evaluation (value)
Behavioural
beliefs x
values
Attitudes
Intentions
Behaviour
Normative
beliefs x
values
Subjective
Norms
Multiplicative composite of normative belief (expectancy) and compliance (value)
Source: Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)

20. Expectancy-value Models of Attitudes and Subjective Norms
Behavioural beliefs
Salient referents
Good companionship
Parents
Weight control
Grandparents
Benefit overall health
Siblings
Take too much time
Friends
Have fun
Schoolteachers
Stay in shape
Improve skills
Get an injury
Makes you hot and sweaty

21. Expectancy-value Models of Attitudes and Subjective Norms
‘Behavioural belief’
Behavioural beliefs (expectancy) and
outcome evaluations (value) regarding
exercise behaviour
Normative beliefs (expectancy) and
motivation to comply (value) regarding exercise behaviour
Attribute
Strength of belief
Value of belief
Result
Salient referent
Get fit
0.90 X +2 =
+1.80
Parents
1.00 +1
+1.00
Socialise with friends
+2.00
Friends
0.80 -2
-1.60
Injure myself
0.10 -1
-0.10
Teacher
.70
+1.40
Outcome
+3.70
+0.80
‘Outcome evaluation’
Sum of ‘expectancy x value’ statements

22. Summary of TRA Research in Exercise
A meta-analysis (Hagger et al., 2002) shows a strong influence of intentions on exercise behaviour
Attitudes have a strong impact on exercise intentions, subjective norms less so
The pattern is the same for direct measures and indirect measures (belief-based) of attitudes and subjective norms
Behavioural beliefs, outcome evaluations, salient referents, and motivation to comply not all account for unique variance in direct measures

23. Theory of Planned Behaviour in Exercise
Behavioural
beliefs x
values
Attitudes
Intentions
Behaviour
Normative
beliefs x
values
Subjective
Norms
Perceptions regarding level of volitional
control “I have control…” and “easy-difficult”
Control
beliefs x
power
Perceived
Behavioural
Control
Source: Ajzen (1985, 1991)

24. Meta-analytic Evidence for the Prediction of Exercise Behaviour Using the TPB
Attitudes
.30*
Intentions
.36*
Behaviour
Subjective
Norms
.08*
.28*
Perceived
Control
Source: Hagger, Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002)

25. Summary of TPB Research in Exercise
A meta-analysis (Hagger et al., 2002) have shown the TPB to predict more variance in exercise behaviour than TRA
Attitudes and perceived behavioural control have a strong impact on exercise intentions but not subjective norms
TPB is more effective in explaining intentions and behaviour that the HBM or PMT (Quine et al., 1998)
Control beliefs predict direct measures of perceived behavioural control but vary according to population (Hagger et al., 2001; Godin et al., 1991)

26. Expectancy-value Models of Perceived Behavioural Control
Young populations
Adult populations
Older populations
Bad weather
Age
Being no good at it
Costs
Fear of heart attack
Doing homework
Fatigue
Heart pain
Going out with friends
No time
Having other hobbies

27. Interventions Based on the TPB
Interventions based on the TPB should target attitudes and perceived behavioural control in particular (Hagger et al., 2002)
Modal, salient beliefs i.e. beliefs about the behaviour that are important to the individuals in the target population and are most frequently cited should be targeted (Ajzen, 1991)
Open ended questionnaires used to obtain modal beliefs (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980)
Persuasive communications should target these beliefs in putting forward the ‘case’ for exercise that is meaningful to the person
Recent research suggests that an intervention based on the TPB is effective in an exercise context (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2005)

28. Interventions Based on the TPB
Example of an intervention ‘script’ for a TPB intervention in exercise:
“Participating in regular exercise has many benefits. You might learn how to play a new game or sport as well as improving your general level of fitness and well-being at the same time. Exercise can also be great fun. It does not necessarily cause injuries or make you feel uncomfortably hot and sweaty if you exercise as an intensity you feel comfortable with”

29. Sufficiency of the TPB Limitations of TPB interventions may be due to…
Ceiling effect on attitudes (need for implemental strategy?)
Focus on people with low or no intentions - motivational rather than volitional
Distal constructs: TPB may not account for other dispositional variables that influence behaviour (e.g., personality) but expected to mediate their effects
Research shows that TPB can be modified to explain further variance in exercise intention and behaviour
Modified variables must predict unique variance in intention/behaviour (Ajzen, 1991)
Attitudinal, normative and control-related modifications shown to be effective (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2005)

30. Extensions of the TPB: Past Behaviour
Attitudes
.30*
.39*
Past
Behaviour
Intentions
.36*
Behaviour
.37*
.05*
Subjective
Norms
.08*
23*
.28*
Perceived
Control
.10
Source: Hagger, Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002)

31. Bozionelos & Bennett (1999)
Extensions of the TPB
Conner & Abraham (2001)
Courneya et al. (2002)
Attitude
Conscientiousness
Personality
Trafimow & Finlay (1996)
Activity
Trafimow & Sheeran (1998)
Social support
Normatively
controlled
individuals
Terry & O’Leary (1995)
Armitage & Conner (2001)
Courneya et al. (2000)
Moderates
Attitudes
Cognitive
Affective
Intentions
Exercise
Behaviour
Subjective
Norms
Descriptive
Norms
Injunctive
Norms
Control
Moderates
Self-
Efficacy
Perceived
Control
Perceived
Controllability
Bozionelos & Bennett (1999)
Attitude
strength/
ambivalence
Rivis & Sheeran (2003)
Anticipated
Regret
Norms
Moral
Norms
Eagly & Chaiken, 1993
Conner et al., 2003

32. Summary of Extensions of the TPB
TPB does not capture psychological determinants of volitional behaviour, but it is a ‘flexible framework’
Predictions of unique variance in intentions and behaviour by additional variables often modest, context dependent, and reduces TPB parsimony
Practical considerations – do interventions based on the extended variables work in changing exercise intentions?
Conceptual overlap between additional variables – commonalities amongst variables can often be subsumed by global constructs (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2006)

33. Additional Theories: Model of Goal Directed Behaviour (Perugini & Conner, 2000)
Frequency
of past
behaviour
Attitudes
Positive
affect
Desires
Intentions
Behaviour
Negative
affect
Perceived
Behavioural
Control
Recency
of past
behaviour
Subjective
Norms
Source: Perugini and Conner (2000)

34. Summary of Model of Goal Directed Behaviour (MGDB)
Desires are important in predicting intention – motivational aspects of attitudes not captured by traditional intentions (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004)
Includes differentiated aspects of past behaviour – frequency and recency
Studies using the MGDB have shown that they account for more variance than the TPB (Perugini & Conner, 2000; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001)
Desire is pivotal in mediating effects of attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, and positive and negative anticipated emotions on intentions
No interventions based on the MGDB have been conducted

35. A ‘Stage’ Model of Exercise: The Transtheoretical or ‘Stages of Change’ Model
Adopted by the HEA as a ‘theoretical approach’ to understanding exercise behaviour
Describes the ‘logical progression’ to adopting exercise
Also identifies processes and levels of change

36. The Transtheoretical Model
Pre-Contemplation: People who do not intend to exercise
Contemplation: Intent to exercise in the next 6 months, not acting
Preparation: May be doing some exercise, ‘in’ and ‘out’
Action: Regular exercisers (3 times per week) – high risk of relapse
Maintenance: Regular exercisers for more than 6 months – less risk of relapse

37. The Transtheoretical Model
Schematic Representation
Lifelong continuation
Action
Preparation
Contemplation
Maintenance
Relapse
Pre-contemplation

38. The Transtheoretical Model and Decisional Balance
Number of reported reasons
Pros
Cons
Pre-contemplation
Contemplation
Maintenance
Readiness
Action

39. Research with the TTM in Exercise
Recent research suggests that SCM’s can be incorporated in the TTM framework
Courneya et al. (2000) found that level of intention predicted exercise stage
Armitage and Arden (2002) found similar results, but suggested that TTM stages are more like a measure of intention

40. Problems with the TTM
Davis (1993) TTM is not a true cognitive model – mix of behavioural and cognitive variables
Armitage and Arden (2002) decisional balance just another measure of intention
Sutton (2000) linear changes in cognitive variables across stages means TTM is not a stage model
Discontinuity patterns most important to support a ‘stage model’

41. Linear and Discontinuity Patterns in the TTM (Sutton, 2000)
Level of Social Cognitive
Variable

42. Linear and Discontinuity Patterns in the TTM (Sutton, 2000)
Level of Social Cognitive
Variable

43. Evidence that TTM is a Stage Model
Level of Attitude
Ambivalence
Armitage, Povey, & Arden (2003)