1. 1 Epistemological Issues Epistemology is the the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and the process by which knowledge is acquired and validated., What is real? Is research knowledge different from other knowledge?

2. 2 Elements of Social Science Inquiry The person’s environment A The person being studied B Physical reality C Social reality D Researcher E Research report F Reader of the report See GBG, Figure 1.1 (p. 17)

3. 3 Realities (Guba & Lincoln (1985). Naturalist Inquiry, p. 82-87) Objective reality - tangible, convergence, reductionist Perceived reality - different interpretations, partial viewpoints Constructed reality - multiple meanings, seeking wholeness Created reality - there is no reality

4. 4 Objective Reality Objective reality exist independently of the individuals who create them or who observe them where the researcher is free of subjective bias and s/he can collect data that are accurate

5. 5 Constructed Reality Constructed reality - the meanings and wholeness derived from or ascribed to tangible phenomena in order to make sense of them, organize them, or reorganize a belief system. Emphasis is not on convergence to create a single reality but on representing multiple constructions of the phenomena.

6. 6 Realities Positivism - the epistemological doctrine that physical and social reality is independent of those who observe it, and that observations of this reality, if unbiased, constitute scientific knowledge. (GBG, p. 18)

7. 7 Realities Positivists - “view the world as being ‘out there,’ and available for study in a more or less static form”, according to Sally Hutchinson. (GBG, p. 18) (e.g., behaviorial researchers in education and psychology)

8. 8 Realities Postpositivism - the epistemological doctrine that social reality is constructed and that it is constructed differently by different individuals. (GBG, p. 19) (e.g., intelligience is a socially constructed reality)

9. 9 Realities Postpositivists - assume that social reality is constructed by the individuals who participate in it. These “constructions” take the form of interpretations, that is, the ascription of meanings to the social environment which do not exist apart from the meanings that individuals construct for them. (GBG, p. 18)

10. 10 Dealing w/Multiple Realities Actively participate in the research Describe personal experiences, involvement and reactions to what is happening in the field Focus on self as an integral constructor of social reality - reflexivity Make the self, “I”, explicit rather than using the “rhetoric of objectivity” (GBG, p. 21)

11. 11 Positivism because of a belief in consistency and causation, the goal is to discover general laws, rules, theories generalizability flows from the study of phenomenon (trends, laws) for particular populations & samples Postpositivism generalizability is not the goal because meaning is embedded in local, immediate, “natural” contexts (cases) the goal is to understand rich complexities of the phenomenon, allowing users to decide on the “transfer” of knowledge Cases & Populations

12. 12 Positivism mathematics define variables, numerical data and scales reliant on statistical analysis concerns about “quantification” Postpostivism “thick” verbal descriptions primarily verbal rather than statistical reliant on analytic induction concerns about “verbalization” Numerical & Verbal Representations

13. 13 Positivism “Mechanical” view of causation fundamental belief in the search for causal connections Postpostivism People interpret social phenomenon Interpretations of the social environment influence actions Ultimately causation is not a viable way of thinking about social research Causation

14. 14 Quantitative-Positivism Assume objective social reality Assume constancy of social reality Detached stance Populations/samples Reductionistic Preconceived Numerical data Impersonal, objective reports Qualitative-Postpostivism Assume constructed social reality Assume social reality is continuously constructed Personally involved Cases Holistic Emergent Verbal data Personal, interpretive reports Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research See GBG, Table 1.3 (p. 30)

15. 15 Postmodern Criticism Posmodernism - a broad social and philosophical movement that questions the rationality of human action, the use of positivism, and any human endeavor that claims a privileged position with respect to the search for truth or that claims progress in the search of truth. (GBG, p. 33)

16. 16 GBG’s Response (pp. 35-38) The creation of concepts that are shared and publicly accessible. The replicability of findings. The refutability of knowledge claims. Control for errors and biases. A moral commitment to progressive discourse.

17. 17 Identifying a Research Problem (pp. 47-56) Reading the research literature Doing theory-based research Replicating and extending previous research Working on a research team Identifying research needs based on issues/problems with practice Identifying problems associated with public policy

18. 18 The Research Proposal (pp. 56-65) Introduction - research problem, research literature, contributions to research and practice, research hypotheses, questions, or objectives Literature Review - literature focusing on similar and related problems, methods, practical applications Research Design, Methods & Analysis - including human subjects, timeline, pilot study See GBG, Figure 2.2 (p. 66)