1. Of Rights as Workers: Women in Public Services Indrani Mazumdar, Centre for Women’s Development Studies (CWDS) New Delhi

2. Indian women’s experience of public sector employment qualitatively and quantitatively different from China in terms of size, share of employment, and social role Historically low share of women in India’s public sector, and even with some increases, still short of 18% in 2012 Relatively greater domination of Community and Social Services (CSS) in the profile of women public sector employment. In 2011, 75% of women concentrated in CSS. Among male public sector employees/workers, CSS – 48% Relatively greater presence of women in the southern region. Southern India accounts for 38% of women’s public sector employment in India in comparison to 22% among male employees. This matches broad pattern of higher rates of urban female work participation in the south.

3. Industry Distribution of Public Sector Women’s Employment (000s) 2001 % Share of Women 2001 Distribution of Public Sector Women’s Employment % Share of Women 2011 Agriculture 48.17 (2%) 10 59.63 (2%) 13 Mining 55.48 (2%) 7 82.78 (3%) 8 Manufacturing 92.18 (3%) 6 77.37 (2%) 8 Electricity/gas/water 44.88 (2%) 5 56.44 (2%) 7 Construction 63.89 (2%) 6 65.35 (2%) 8 Trade & Hotels 17.34 (1%) 10 13.89 (0.4%) 8 Transport/Communications 173.41 (6%) 6 189.98 (6%) 8 Finance/Insurance/Real Estate & Business Services 184.30 (6%) 15 221.77 (7%) 16 Community, Social & Personal Services 2170.40 (76%) 22 2364.08 (75%) 26 all2850.04 (100) 15 3131.29 (100) 18

4. Region/Zone Distribution of Public Sector Women’s Employment (000s) 2001 % Share of Women 2001 Distribution of Public Sector Women’s Employment (000s) 2011 % Share of Women 2011 North462.62 (16%) 15 521.59 (16%)18 Central354.64 (12%) 11 396.11 (12%)13 North Eastern151.83 (5%) 17 166.74 (5%)19 Eastern296.83 (10%) 8 326.49 (10%)10 Western503.51 (18%) 16 612.35 (19%)20 Southern1076.36 (38%) 23 1139.84 (38%)26 All2850.04 (100) 15 3170.64 (100)18

5. Uncounted Women Workers in public service delivery Denied Worker Status and Rights A notable tendency in administration of public services in India has been the increasing recruitment of millions of women as so-called volunteers or activists Denied any legal status/recognition as ‘workers’,they are consequently deprived not only of employment rights as public sector/government employees, but also of any legal entitlement as workers to statutory minimum wages and social security benefits Paid well below subsistence wages, euphemistically called ‘honoraria’ or ‘incentives’ (honoraria referring to monthly salaries, and incentives to piece rates)

6. 3 principal programmes or schemes through which the Central Government of India has evolved a massive system of underpaying and using women as the cheapest workforce for the delivery of essential public services An army of more than 5 million women workers in just these three schemes actually exceeds the total number women in official public sector employment by well over a million ICDS (Integrated Child Development Scheme) employs more than 2.4 million Anganwadi Workers and Helpers – all women National Health Mission employs 894,525 ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activist) workers – all women Mid-day Meal Scheme for Primary and Upper Primary Schools employs 2.57 cooks-cum-helpers of which 85% (2.2 million) are women

7. These Scheme Workers have emerged as a vanguard in movements of women workers commanding a new respect and support from even male trade unionists Their struggles have been many, but an anti-labour environment has influenced particularly the higher judiciary and advances made for legal recognition as workers have been reversed Experience of trade unions seems to indicate that in this all female workforce/cadres, the scope for growth and development of women leaders has been greater Paradoxically, the organisation of these all female cadres of workers has been by the mixed gender based trade union organisations The one central trade union that is all female and focuses on informal workers has not played a role in organising scheme workers