1. Language & Identity in Multilingual Environments Adapted from Representations & Self- Representations Laura A. Janda

2. Overview National identity linked to language –History of nationalism What is a language? –Why is it a core factor of identity? –How many languages & countries are there? Matrix vs. embedded languages –Colonialism & post-colonialism –Group vs. individual interests

3. Nation, Nationality, and Nationalism Are innovative, recent concepts, artifacts created in late 18 th century in W. Europe (Anderson 1991) Prior to the advent of nationality, and in the absence of technologies such as print, railroads, automobiles, how were human societies organized?

4. Religious communities Dynastic realms Local communities

5. Local Community Defined by place – people who are close enough for face-to-face contact Can be multilingual Religious Community Defined by faith, but could potentially reach all mankind Often used a sacred language, “superior” to vernaculars Dynastic Realm Defined by loyalty to royal leader Eventually took on nationalist features in W. Europe

6. Nationalism – A product of W. European Romanticism Three German philosophers: Johann Gottfried Herder Wilhelm von Humboldt Johann Gottlieb Fichte

7. Nationalism – A product of W. European Romanticism Three German philosophers: Johann Gottfried Herder “Has a nation anything more precious than the language of its fathers?”

8. Nationalism – A product of W. European Romanticism Three German philosophers: Wilhelm von Humboldt Language is the “spiritual exhalation” of the nation

9. Nationalism – A product of West European Romanticism Three German philosophers: Johann Gottlieb Fichte “Men are formed by language far more than language is formed by men” German nation and language are superior

10. A modern definition of nation (Anderson 1991) An imagined political community that is both limited and sovereign Imagined because members cannot all know each other Limited because no nation encompasses all of mankind, nor even aspires to Sovereign because nations came into being during Enlightenment and strive for freedom Community because a nation is conceived of as a horizontal comradeship of equals

11. What do the people of a nation share? A name A language A territory Myths & memories A culture An economy Rights and duties Q: Which are necessary? Which are un/chosen? Which are objective/discrete? An “ideal” nation-state assumes ONE nation = ONE state

12. Language (Andersen 1991) A language is a powerful means to root a nation to a past because a language looms up from the past without any birthdate of its own, and suggests a community between a contemporary society and its dead ancestors Poetry, songs, national anthems create a simultaneous community of selfless voices

13. Why is language a key factor in identity? (Janda forthc) Vehicle for culture (both “C” and “c”) Vehicle of transmission for “wordless” media (dance, cuisine, handicrafts) If language is lost, access to culture is also lost Cultural concepts are embedded in language Language and culture co-evolve, are continuously tailored to each other

14. What is a language? A dialect? Mutual comprehensibility? –This works for some situations, but are there counterexamples? It doesn’t work for : –German (incomprehensible dialects) –Norwegian,Swedish,Danish (comprehensible) –Slavic (both situations) –Chinese Q: What’s going on? A: IMAGINATION

15. Problem with the “ideal” nation-state Q: How many countries are there in the world? A: 192. Q: How many languages are there in the world? A: At least 6912.

16. Why are languages important? (Harrison 2006, Janda forthc) They contain information about culture and human interaction They contain information about sustainable use of niche environments They contain information about the human brain Most languages of the world belong to indigenous nations Languages are repositories of human knowledge Most of human knowledge is in the hands/mouths of indigenous peoples

17. Matrix and Embedded Languages Matrix – a language that is connected to political structures, that serves purposes of national or regional communication Embedded – a language that is used within a single ethnic group, that is under pressure from a matrix language Nearly all indigenous languages are embedded languages

18. Colonialism & Post-Colonialism Colonialism has –Created “new” boundaries and identities that persist in post-colonial era –Treated indigenous peoples and their languages in different ways –Sometimes shifted the identity of languages as matrix vs. embedded

19. Group vs. Individual Interests for Indigenous Languages Group Interests –Preserve indigenous language –Have monolingual speakers, transmission to young generation –Have education in native language Individual Interests –Social and economic upward mobility –Fluency in (one or more) matrix language

20. Language and Identity Culture embodies those moral, ethical and aesthetic values, the set of spiritual eyeglasses, through which (people) come to view themselves and their place in the universe. Values are the basis of a people’s identity, their sense of particularity as members of the human race (Ngugi wa Thiong’o).

21. The story so far We classify people in terms of general ‘person-types’ –E.g. Man, Brit, Londoner, Educated We apply the same classification to ourselves as we search for a social identity. Our identity varies according to: –Who we are interacting with –The situation (e.g. formal/casual)

22. Who am I?

23. Variable is a Membership of a category is usually a matter of degree, –E.g. a chair is a ‘better’ item of furniture than an ash-tray. Similarly for our social self-classification, –E.g. my daughters are ‘better’ Londoners than I am. Degrees of membership can be shown as percentages.

24. Language We signal our social identity in various ways, e.g. clothing, behaviour. Perhaps the most important signal is language because: –It’s learned socially. –It allows many distinctions (e.g. one per phoneme). –Each token (instance) can be chosen independently, which allows fine-tuning.

25. Acts of identity Every word is an “act of identity in a multi- dimensional social space” (Le Page). This is different from (simple) accommodation because we’re following –Abstract social prototypes (‘person-types’) –Not the people in front of us. Acts of identity fine-tune our face (= ‘public self-image’)

26. Who are they?

27. New York How do you study “the language” of a complex city such as New York? William Labov’s answer (PhD, 1962-66): study sociolinguistic variables. E.g. (r): [r] ~ Ø (e.g. car = [k ɑ:r] ~ [kɑ:]) He tested this idea with a brilliant pilot study.

28. Background Labov (a New Yorker) observed that (r) was variable. The old standard in NYC was (r):Ø. The new educated standard seemed to be (r):[r] For example,

29. Hypotheses Use of (r) varies with social class and age. Maybe sex matters too. And ‘style’ (attention to language). And phonological context (before C or word-final).

30. Method: speaker selection Select an easy measure of “education”: – wealth. Select places which cater for people of differing wealth: –department stores. Three stores qualified: –Saks: for the very rich –Macy’s: for the comfortably off –Klein: for the poor

31. Method: choice of words Select some words containing (r), e.g. fourth, floor. Get assistants in those places to say those words: –Ask where to find some item known to be on the fourth floor. –Then pretend not to have heard the answer. Record their answers out of sight.

32. Results In this way he collected data from 264 subjects in just over six hours. He counted (r):[r] as % of all (r). He distinguished: –Saks, Macy’s, Klein –First and second utterance –Fourth and floor

33. (r) by store, word and utterance

34. So … Use of (r) does indeed vary with: Education/wealth/social class –Evidence: differences among stores Style/attention to language –Evidence: first versus second utterance –But less so in Saks Phonological context –Evidence: fourth versus floor

35. Main findings Different sociolinguistic variables are sensitive to different social variables. Variable scores show variable allegiance to alternative person-types. Education is always important: –education/social class is always relevant (in America as much as in UK). –Women are always more ‘standard’ than men (provided they have access to education). –Formal speech (e.g. reading lists) is always more ‘standard’ (as defined by education) than casual.

36. Bibliography Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities. London/New York: Verso. Edwards, John. 1985. Language, Society and Identity. Oxford: Blackwell. Harrison, K. David. 2006. When Languages Die: The extinction of the world's languages and the erosion of human knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Janda, Laura A. Forthcoming. "From Cognitive Linguistics to Cultural Linguistics", to appear in Slovo a smysl/Word and Sense."From Cognitive Linguistics to Cultural Linguistics"