1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Is Emotion? Emotion – A four-part process consisting of 1=physiological arousal, 2=cognitive interpretation, 3=subjective feelings, and 4=behavioral expression These are aspects of emotion that interact with each other; they don’t necessarily function in that order

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Do Our Emotions Do For Us? Emotions have evolved to help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Evolution of Emotions Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by natural selection…for example fear promotes avoiding danger, love promotes passing on genetic traits, jealousy eliminates competition for having offspring Individuals vary tremendously in emotional responsiveness Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics…there is a learned aspect to it as well (nature and nurture interact)

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression People everywhere can recognize at least seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise There are, however, huge cultural differences in the context and intensity of emotional displays

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression Display rules – Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society; what emotions can you show? What can’t you? What’s allowed? What isn’t?

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How many emotions are there? Paul Ekman and his colleagues claim that people everywhere can recognize at least seven basic emotions: Sadness Fear Anger Disgust Contempt Happiness Surprise

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Emotion Wheel—Robert Plutchik

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Emotional differences between men and women depend on culture Gender stereotypes dictate that men and boys receive reinforcement for displays of dominance, anger, and aggressive behavior They may be punished for displays of weakness, crying, depression, sadness—the opposite is true for girls and women We cannot conclude that one sex has more emotional intensity than the other

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The discovery of two distinct brain pathways for emotional arousal has clarified the connections among the many biological structures involved in emotion and has offered solutions to many of the long- standing issues in the psychology of emotion Where Do Our Emotions Come From?

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Neuroscience of Emotion The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include: The limbic system The reticular formation The cerebral cortex The autonomic nervous system Hormones

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Emotion Processing—fast-response It operates at a mainly unconscious level It is linked to the implicit memory system It can act as an early warning defense This system learns responses through classical conditioning very easily Example: hearing a loud noise in the middle of the night

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Emotion processing—slow response This is linked to our explicit memory It generates emotion more slowly than the other pathway, but the information it puts together is more complete Example: growing tension in your body in preparation for giving a speech

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Role of different brain structures… Amygdala: it receives messages from both the quick and slow pathways Reticular formation: arouses the brain, makes heart accelerate, respiration increase, mouth get dry, muscles tense Cerebral cortex: interprets situations and connects them to memories/feelings Lateralization of emotion: right hemisphere of brain specializes in negative emotions, while the left processes more positive emotions

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory– An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion Cannon-bard theory – An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion continued… Schacter’s Two-factor theory of emotion – Emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and (2) emotion provoking stimulus

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Emotion fear Cognitive interpretation of situation Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate James- Lange theory Cannon- bard theory Two- factor theory Stimulus snake Stimulus snake Emotion fear Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Emotion fear

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion Cognitive appraisal theory – Theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event Opponent-process theory – Theory that emotions have pairs; when one is triggered the other is suppressed

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Performance LowHigh Low High Arousal Level Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Inverted “U” function – Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Sensation seekers – Individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people…this might involve the brain’s dopamine pathways, which usually are associated with “reward”

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Much Control Do We Have Over Our Emotions? Although emotional responses are not always consciously regulated, we can learn to control them

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Developing Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence – Ability to understand and control emotional responses Example: Daniel Goldman’s marshmallow test

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Detecting Deception People can learn to control their emotions to deceive others Polygraph – Device that records the graphs of many measures of physical arousal; often called a “lie detector”– it’s really an arousal detector—with a significant margin of error

24. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation takes many forms, but all involve inferred mental processes that select and direct our behavior Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?

25. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do? Motivation – All processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities

26. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivation Motivation Connects observable behavior to internal states Accounts for variability in behavior Explains perseverance despite adversity Relates biology to behavior

27. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Drive – Biologically instigated motivation Motive – Internal mechanism that directs behavior (often used to describe motivations that are learned, rather that biologically based)

28. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward)

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Conscious motivation – Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire Unconscious motivation – Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire

30. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation Instinct theory – View that certain behaviors are determined by innate factors Fixed-action patterns – Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus

31. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation Instinct theory – outdated view that certain behaviors are completely determined by innate factors (fixed-action patterns—species-specific and triggered by stimuli)…this is the more modern and accepted view Drive theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces drive…drive reduction Homeostasis – The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation Cognitive theory: Locus of control – An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate–internally or externally…Julian Rotter Psychodynamic theory (Freud): Motivation comes from the id (eros=the desire for sex + thanatos=the desire to destroy) As we grow older these urges are masked in our activities and become less conscious

33. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maslow’s Humanistic Theory Hierarchy of needs – The notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic

34. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch Motivation Overjustification – The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games…this is especially true if the reward is given regardless of how well the person does

35. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation, because each motive involves its own mix of biological, mental, behavioral, and social/cultural influences How Are Achievement, Hunger, and Sex Alike? Different?

36. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Measuring the Need for Achievement Projection – Process by which people attribute their own unconscious motives to other people or objects; this is the basis for the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Need for achievement (n Ach) – Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal…some results for those with high n Ach: higher grades, more competitive, leaders, persistence, etc.

37. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Achievement Individualism – View that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction (US, Canada, Britain, Western Europe) Collectivism – View that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction (Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East)

38. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Hunger Motivation The multiple-systems approach to hunger: psychologists use this approach since hunger is now seen as more complex than once thought to be… Weight control is a complex issue with no simple answers !

39. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Multiple-Systems Approach to Hunger continued… Receptors in the brain monitor sugar and fat levels in the blood, sending signals to the lateral hypothalamus An internal “scale” weighs the fat stores in the body and lets the CNS know the results. The goal is the Set point – (Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight) Pressure detectors in the stomach signal fullness or emptiness Other mechanisms give us the preference for sweet and high-fat foods Moderate exercise suppresses hunger; extreme exercise provokes it

40. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 More about hunger… Culture can affect hunger Situations can affect hunger Emotions can affect hunger

41. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Eating disorders If a person weighs less than 85% of the desirable weight and still worries about being fat, the likely diagnosis is anorexia nervosa. The condition may also be accompanied by bulimia nervosa (binge eating and then purging through fasting, vomiting, or laxatives). This is more common in females than males in the US. It has the highest mortality rate of any recognized mental disorder.

42. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Thirst and Pain Volumetric thirst – A drop in extracellular (outside of cells) fluid levels Osmotic thirst – A drop in intracellular (inside of cells) fluid levels through sweat, urine, feces, mucus, or moisture in breath Pain is usually the opposite: it is a drive to avoid or remove it, rather than seek it

43. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Scientific Study of Sexuality Sexual motivation: it’s for the survival of the species, not the individual. It is not a homeostatic drive Alfred Kinsey interviewed 17,000 Americans concerning their sexual behavior…no one else has interviewed such a wide and varied sample. William Masters and Virginia Johnson Sexual response cycle – Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women

44. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Phases of Human Sexual Response

45. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sexual Motivation The brain is the major sex organ. Virtually any stimulus that becomes associated with genital touch and orgasm can become a conditioned stimulus that motivates sexual activity Sexual scripts – Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations Both learning and genetics affect our sexual behaviors

46. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Origins of Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation – One’s erotic attraction toward members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes Research has yielded many conflicting results as to nature vs. nurture in this field of study; nothing is conclusive as of yet

47. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Approach-approach conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options Approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made

48. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Avoidance-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally unattractive options Multiple approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects

49. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How and Why Do We Experience Stress? The human stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and physiological arousal that normally promote adaptation and survival

50. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and Stressors Stress – A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation Stressor – a stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation

51. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Model of Stress

52. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Traumatic Stressors Traumatic stressor – a situation that threatens one’s physical safety, arousing feelings of fear, horror, or helplessness

53. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Catastrophe Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages that occur in the wake of natural disasters… Psychic numbness (shock and confusion) Automatic action (low awareness/recall) Communal effort (pooling resources) Letdown (feeling the tragedy’s effect) Recovery (adapting to changes)

54. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Posttraumatic Stress Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)– delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma…this manifests itself as numbness, distraction, disorganization, memory difficulties, alienation, “startle response,” anger, fear of being alone, etc.

55. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and offset Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time

56. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response Fight-or-flight response – A sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape…the amygdala and hypothalamus initiate a response of the ANS Tend-and-befriend model – stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support

57. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor

58. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Resistance Resistance – the body seems to adapt to the presence of the stressor Alarm Reaction Alarm reaction – the body mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a stressor The General Adaptation Syndrome Exhaustion Illness/death Exhaustion – the body depletes it’s resources Level of normal resistance Successful Resistance

59. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and the Immune System Immune system – bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats

60. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and the Immune System Psychoneuroimmunology – Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system Cytokines – Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system

61. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Personality and Stress Type A – behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations Type B – behavior pattern characterized by a relaxed, unstressed approach to life

62. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Responses to Stress Learned helplessness Martin Seligman – Pattern of not responding to noxious stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect (this was demonstrated by experimenting on dogs with electric shocks)

63. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Responses to Stress Resilience – Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being, and cope with stress, in spite of serious threats to development It helps to: feel in control, communicate effectively, set realistic goals, learn from success/failure, feel empathy toward others, feel special but not self-centered

64. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivating Yourself Flow – An intense focus on an activity, accompanied by increased creativity and near-ecstatic feelings Involves intrinsic motivation and is related to n Ach

65. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 8