1. Chapter 4: The Origin of Mind Evolution and Development of Brain and Cognition

2. ControversyControversy / Controversy over the evolution of the human mind and brain has raged since naturalists began debating the implications of Darwin’s and Wallace’s first publication regarding natural selection, which was presented in 1858 and later proved in Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859.

3. ControversyControversy / Disagreement between Darwin and Wallace: / Darwin: metal faculties of the human brain, such as language, had evolved by means of natural and sexual selection and, although qualitatively different in some ways, showed many continuities with the faculties of mind and brain of other species. / Wallace: did not believe that this could be true, especially as related to intelligence and morality, which according to Wallace, could not be the result of such mindless organic evolution. / Disagreement between Darwin and Wallace: / Darwin: metal faculties of the human brain, such as language, had evolved by means of natural and sexual selection and, although qualitatively different in some ways, showed many continuities with the faculties of mind and brain of other species. / Wallace: did not believe that this could be true, especially as related to intelligence and morality, which according to Wallace, could not be the result of such mindless organic evolution.

4. Current Debate / Still concerns whether the human mind and brain are composed of specific faculties, now called modules, that evolved as a result of specific selection pressures. / The debate is regarding the relative importance of inherent gene-driven constraints versus patterns of developmental experience on the organization and functioning of human mental faculties, such as language. / Epigenisis / Plasticity / Still concerns whether the human mind and brain are composed of specific faculties, now called modules, that evolved as a result of specific selection pressures. / The debate is regarding the relative importance of inherent gene-driven constraints versus patterns of developmental experience on the organization and functioning of human mental faculties, such as language. / Epigenisis / Plasticity

5. Current Debate / Concerned with the extent to which inherent constraints or developmental experiences are emphasized. Two views: / High degree of inherent constraint / Mental faculties emerge through an interaction of more minimal inherent constraints and the potent effects of developmental experience / Concerned with the extent to which inherent constraints or developmental experiences are emphasized. Two views: / High degree of inherent constraint / Mental faculties emerge through an interaction of more minimal inherent constraints and the potent effects of developmental experience

6. FocusFocus / The focus of arguments by scientists at either end focus on the benefits of inherent constraint or openness to experiential modification. / Author’s proposal: faculties of mind are the result of specific selection pressures. / The focus of arguments by scientists at either end focus on the benefits of inherent constraint or openness to experiential modification. / Author’s proposal: faculties of mind are the result of specific selection pressures.

7. Variant vs. Invariant Patterns (author’s proposal continued) / Some of these information patterns, such as shape of face, are largely the same (invariant patterns) from one situation or generation to the next, and thus constrained brain and cognitive systems that direct attention to and process these patterns are predicted to evolve. / For some information patterns individual differences (variant patterns) is essential. (ex: the ability to distinguish the cry of one’s own baby from the cry of all other babies.). / Some of these information patterns, such as shape of face, are largely the same (invariant patterns) from one situation or generation to the next, and thus constrained brain and cognitive systems that direct attention to and process these patterns are predicted to evolve. / For some information patterns individual differences (variant patterns) is essential. (ex: the ability to distinguish the cry of one’s own baby from the cry of all other babies.).

8. Constraints on Brain Organization Across Species / Shows how the human brain can show continuities with the brains of other species and yet be different in ways that are uniquely human. / This provides a framework for understanding how evolution can operate on brain systems that are common across species (due to a common ancestor) to create species-specific specializations, such as those things that Wallace argued sets humans apart from all other species (intelligence and morality). / Shows how the human brain can show continuities with the brains of other species and yet be different in ways that are uniquely human. / This provides a framework for understanding how evolution can operate on brain systems that are common across species (due to a common ancestor) to create species-specific specializations, such as those things that Wallace argued sets humans apart from all other species (intelligence and morality).

9. Constraints on Brain Organization Across Species / Extant species=species whose lines have branched off of the evolutionary tree at different points in evolutionary history (provide the best means to make inferences about the history of brain organization and evolution) / In mammalian evolution, three major lines have emerged: / Prototheria (extant example: duck-billed platypus) / Metatheria (extant example: eastern gray kangaroo) / Eutheria (placental mammals--extant example: human beings) / Extant species=species whose lines have branched off of the evolutionary tree at different points in evolutionary history (provide the best means to make inferences about the history of brain organization and evolution) / In mammalian evolution, three major lines have emerged: / Prototheria (extant example: duck-billed platypus) / Metatheria (extant example: eastern gray kangaroo) / Eutheria (placental mammals--extant example: human beings)

10. / Also called the cerebral cortex, the neocortex constitutes five-sixths of the human brain. It is the outer portion of our brain, and is approximately the size of a newspaper page crumpled together.

11. Constraints on Brain Organizations Across Species / Analogous: same function but independent evolution / Homology: similarity because of a common ancestor. / Scientists examine brain organization of extant species in an attempt to deduce similarities (constraints conserved from a common ancestor) and differences (species-specific adaptations). Constraints: (examples) / Structure of the central nervous system (CNS) / Diencephalon (including the thalamus and hypothalamus) / The organization of the thalamus / Many of the sensory nuclei of the thalamus / Homologous nuclei found when comparing a mouse and human thalamus / Many divisions of the hippocampus / Also in the neocortex (primary sensory areas--primary visual, somatosensory, and auditory corticles) / Analogous: same function but independent evolution / Homology: similarity because of a common ancestor. / Scientists examine brain organization of extant species in an attempt to deduce similarities (constraints conserved from a common ancestor) and differences (species-specific adaptations). Constraints: (examples) / Structure of the central nervous system (CNS) / Diencephalon (including the thalamus and hypothalamus) / The organization of the thalamus / Many of the sensory nuclei of the thalamus / Homologous nuclei found when comparing a mouse and human thalamus / Many divisions of the hippocampus / Also in the neocortex (primary sensory areas--primary visual, somatosensory, and auditory corticles)

12. Constraints on Brain Organization Across Species / The pattern emerging from research is that the basic architecture and some of the specialized functions of the mammalian neocortex and subcortical regions are conserved across species, including humans.--inconsistent with Wallace’s position that the brain and mind of humans is fundamentally different from those of other species.

13. How are Human Brains Different from Other Species? / The number of genes responsible for the development of the human brain / Studies also suggest that the same genes may be expressed differently / Humans also show a much higher frequency of gene expression. / Therefore, humans show higher rates of neuronal and related activities / An analysis in which 7, 645 genes in the mouse, chimpanzee, and human were compared, found evidence for natural selection modifying a set of specific genes involved in neural development, speech, and hearing, among other traits, during human evolution. / Concluding: Many of the same genes that regulate the building of the human brain are involved in the building of other brains, but there are also important species-specific differences. / The number of genes responsible for the development of the human brain / Studies also suggest that the same genes may be expressed differently / Humans also show a much higher frequency of gene expression. / Therefore, humans show higher rates of neuronal and related activities / An analysis in which 7, 645 genes in the mouse, chimpanzee, and human were compared, found evidence for natural selection modifying a set of specific genes involved in neural development, speech, and hearing, among other traits, during human evolution. / Concluding: Many of the same genes that regulate the building of the human brain are involved in the building of other brains, but there are also important species-specific differences.

14. Brain Development is Dependent on Both Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors / The human neocortex is subdivided into many functionally and architectonically distinct areas. Arealization refers to the prenatal formation of these areas. / Intrinsic: belonging naturally; essential. / Extrinsic: not part of the essential nature of someone or something; coming or operating from outside. / Protomap Hypothesis / Protocortex Hypothesis / The human neocortex is subdivided into many functionally and architectonically distinct areas. Arealization refers to the prenatal formation of these areas. / Intrinsic: belonging naturally; essential. / Extrinsic: not part of the essential nature of someone or something; coming or operating from outside. / Protomap Hypothesis / Protocortex Hypothesis

15. Intrinsic Model vs. Extrinsic Model / Intrinsic Model: consistent with the Protomap Hypothesis. Recent results have shown that the developing neocortex is “patterned” early in development, with a graded expression of different genes in different cortical areas. (ex: gene expression patterns are found in mice lacking thalmacortical inputs, suggesting that some degree of cortical arealization may occur without external, thalamic input). / FG28 / Emerging evidence seems to suggest that the largely prenatal development of the neocortex, is at least to some extent dependent on intrinsic, genetically mediated properties of the neocortex. / Intrinsic Model: consistent with the Protomap Hypothesis. Recent results have shown that the developing neocortex is “patterned” early in development, with a graded expression of different genes in different cortical areas. (ex: gene expression patterns are found in mice lacking thalmacortical inputs, suggesting that some degree of cortical arealization may occur without external, thalamic input). / FG28 / Emerging evidence seems to suggest that the largely prenatal development of the neocortex, is at least to some extent dependent on intrinsic, genetically mediated properties of the neocortex.

16. Intrinsic Model vs. Extrinsic Model / Extrinsic Model: consistent with the Protocortex Hypothesis. Intrinsic influences are not the whole story. When cells from the location of the visual cortex-- presumably destined to be visual cells--are transplanted into the developing somatosensory cortex, these cells develop into cells that are common in the somatosensory cortex. / This evidence suggests that input from the thalamus and synaptic activity play a major role in the determination of organization of the neocortex. / Extrinsic Model: consistent with the Protocortex Hypothesis. Intrinsic influences are not the whole story. When cells from the location of the visual cortex-- presumably destined to be visual cells--are transplanted into the developing somatosensory cortex, these cells develop into cells that are common in the somatosensory cortex. / This evidence suggests that input from the thalamus and synaptic activity play a major role in the determination of organization of the neocortex.

17. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Model / Most developmental neurobiologists now agree that normal and largely prenatal (in most species) development of the neocortex appears to depend on both internal (graded gene expression across areas of neocortex) and external (inputs from the thalamus) influences.

18. Allometry / Allometry: refers to systematic relations among different features of body morphology, architecture, and development; relations that complicate the determination of whether any particular trait is the direct result of specific selection pressures. / A more central issue is the potential for allometric relationships among different regions of the brain, specifically whether selection that operated to increase the size of one brain area could result in increases in the size of other areas. (relation to brain plasticity) / Allometry: refers to systematic relations among different features of body morphology, architecture, and development; relations that complicate the determination of whether any particular trait is the direct result of specific selection pressures. / A more central issue is the potential for allometric relationships among different regions of the brain, specifically whether selection that operated to increase the size of one brain area could result in increases in the size of other areas. (relation to brain plasticity)

19. Allometric Expansion / When the relations were analyzed among the absolute size of 12 brain regions across 131 species of mammal, they found that a single factor accounted for 96% of the similarities in region size. Results for this factor suggest that a single mechanism may account for the absolute size of many different brain regions and thus provide evidence inconsistent with the position that there are specific faculties of brain and mind that evolved as a result of specific social or ecological selection pressures. / Finlay and Darlington conceded that specific brain and cognitive adaptations are found, but they appear to be less important than a more general mechanism that influenced the evolution of the absolute size of all brain regions. The proposed mechanism involves genes regulating prenatal neocortical development. / When the relations were analyzed among the absolute size of 12 brain regions across 131 species of mammal, they found that a single factor accounted for 96% of the similarities in region size. Results for this factor suggest that a single mechanism may account for the absolute size of many different brain regions and thus provide evidence inconsistent with the position that there are specific faculties of brain and mind that evolved as a result of specific social or ecological selection pressures. / Finlay and Darlington conceded that specific brain and cognitive adaptations are found, but they appear to be less important than a more general mechanism that influenced the evolution of the absolute size of all brain regions. The proposed mechanism involves genes regulating prenatal neocortical development.

20. Allometric Expansion / A several fold increase in the size of the neocortex could occur as a result of genetic changes that prolonged the division of the progenitor cell that give birth to neurons, which could significantly increase the size of the neocortex in the absence of specific selection pressures. (talked about in chapter 3)

21. Other factors / Other scientists analyzed systems of brain regions that often operate together--cerebrotypes--to determine if these integrated systems were related to identifiable social or ecological conditions, such as demands associated with prey capture. / Using this approach they found that distinct cerebrotypes emerged for species of insectivore, shrew, and primate and were consistent with adaptations to specific ecological and social conditions. / Other scientists analyzed systems of brain regions that often operate together--cerebrotypes--to determine if these integrated systems were related to identifiable social or ecological conditions, such as demands associated with prey capture. / Using this approach they found that distinct cerebrotypes emerged for species of insectivore, shrew, and primate and were consistent with adaptations to specific ecological and social conditions.

22. Costs and Results of Allometric Expansion of the Neocortex / Expansion of brain size results in higher basal metabolic costs, consuming about 20% of calories in the average human. / Dendrites that are doubled in length must be quadrupled in diameter. / With cortical expansions, each neuron must communicate with proportionally fewer neurons than before the expansion. / Specializations associated with cortical expansion confer benefits such as increased specialization of neuronal circuits and a corresponding increase in the fidelity of information the region can process and an increased ability to integrate information within and across areas. / Expansion of brain size results in higher basal metabolic costs, consuming about 20% of calories in the average human. / Dendrites that are doubled in length must be quadrupled in diameter. / With cortical expansions, each neuron must communicate with proportionally fewer neurons than before the expansion. / Specializations associated with cortical expansion confer benefits such as increased specialization of neuronal circuits and a corresponding increase in the fidelity of information the region can process and an increased ability to integrate information within and across areas.

23. Constraints and Experiential Modification Working Together / Research suggests that brain organization and most functions of mind are dependent on a mix of gene-driven constraints and patterns of early experiences. Example: / The basic pattern of the human face is invariant, and thus inherent constraints on the brain and cognitive systems that are sensitive to these patterns are predicted to evolve, because these constraints would enable the fast, efficient identification of conspecifics (e.g., parents). / Sexual reproduction, mutations, and development perturbations (e.g., poor nutrition) result in variation around this basic pattern. Systems associated with sensitivity to variation must inevitably be plastic, as a new cohort of individuals is produced each generation. (combination of inherent constraint and openness to experience- driven modification) / Research suggests that brain organization and most functions of mind are dependent on a mix of gene-driven constraints and patterns of early experiences. Example: / The basic pattern of the human face is invariant, and thus inherent constraints on the brain and cognitive systems that are sensitive to these patterns are predicted to evolve, because these constraints would enable the fast, efficient identification of conspecifics (e.g., parents). / Sexual reproduction, mutations, and development perturbations (e.g., poor nutrition) result in variation around this basic pattern. Systems associated with sensitivity to variation must inevitably be plastic, as a new cohort of individuals is produced each generation. (combination of inherent constraint and openness to experience- driven modification)

24. Exoskeleton / Exoskeleton= refers to inherent constraints on the types of information the organism attends to and processes. It is a type of plasticity. The absolute boundaries are determined by the basic physics of information conduction, with constraints for individual species falling within this range. / Plasticity occurs within the constraints of the exoskeleton, and the associated “soft” mechanisms would evolve for species and domains in which within-category discriminations result in survival or reproductive advantage. / Exoskeleton= hard, set, inherent constraints. / “soft”= within these hard, set, constraints, there is moldable plasticity. / Metaphor= description of the interaction of constraints and experiential modification in human mental processes. / Exoskeleton= refers to inherent constraints on the types of information the organism attends to and processes. It is a type of plasticity. The absolute boundaries are determined by the basic physics of information conduction, with constraints for individual species falling within this range. / Plasticity occurs within the constraints of the exoskeleton, and the associated “soft” mechanisms would evolve for species and domains in which within-category discriminations result in survival or reproductive advantage. / Exoskeleton= hard, set, inherent constraints. / “soft”= within these hard, set, constraints, there is moldable plasticity. / Metaphor= description of the interaction of constraints and experiential modification in human mental processes.