1. LABOUR MARKET AND GENDER Useful Statistical Sources: 1. Labour Market Trends 2. Labour Force Survey 3. General Household Survey 4. Social Trends

2. Topics and Statistics 1 Participation: Economically inactive females 1971 = 40.6% Economically inactive females 2005 = 26.4% Economically inactive males 1971 = 4.6% Economically inactive males 2005 = 16.6% Source: Labour Force Survey

3. Topics and Statistics 2 Pay: 1998 female hourly pay = 80% of male pay 2005 female hourly pay = 87% of male pay (excluding overtime) Source: Labour Force Survey

4. Topics and Statistics 2 Gender Segmentation (crowding): Out of 108 occupational groups EU: 75% of males work in 30 occupations 66% of females work in 21 occupations 66% of females work in 21 occupations UK: 71% of males work in 29 occupations 69% of females work in 17 occupations 69% of females work in 17 occupations Gender segmentation has decreased with increasing female participation for highly educated women only

5. WORK & GENDER - Issues 1. The Friedman/Marx paradox – the economic irrationality of gender discrimination. 2. Human Capital – the economics of gender discrimination. 3. Reserve Army – the politics of gender discrimination 4. Patriarchy – the culture of gender discrimination 5. Problems of synthesising the different theories – Capitalist Patriarchy or Patriarchal Capitalism

6. HUMAN CAPITAL Individuals who invest time and money (including foregone earnings) in education training and other qualities that increase their productivity and thus their worth to an employer, are said to have a greater endowment of human capital Source: Abercrombie et al Penguin Dictionary of Sociology = Womens work is paid less because it is worth less

7. HUMAN CAPITAL THESIS Advantages a) Fits in with Labour Market Segmentation theory b) Rational model; (apparently) resolves the paradox Disadvantages a) Only partially accounts for evident pay differentials between men and women b) Assumes, but does not explain, the labour market significance of gender

8. RESERVE ARMY OF LABOUR Because, from the Marxist perspective, capitalism is an irrational system it is subject to unpredictable market fluctuations: booms and busts. The reserve army of labour bears the costs of this irrationality because it is composed of that fraction of the proletariat that can be called into - and excluded from - the general workforce in a way that protects capital (and privileged members of the proletariat) from the costs of these fluctuations. Membership of the reserve army is generally enforced upon socially marginal groups such as women and ethnic minorities. Source: Me

9. RESERVE ARMY OF LABOUR THESIS Advantages a) General - not ad hoc b) Rational model – presents gender discrimination as a coherent strategy Disadvantages a) Theoretical - unexamined assumptions b) Empirical – gender segmentation of jobs seems incompatible; contradictory evidence

10. PATRIARCHY (patriarchy) is used to describe the dominance of men over women, a dominance which appears in several quite different kinds of society. Source: Penguin Dictionary of Sociology Patriarchy as a political structure seeks to control and subjugate women so that their possibilities for making choices about their sexuality, childrearing, mothering, loving, and laboring are curtailed. Patriarchy, as a system of oppression, recognizes the potential power of women and the actual power of men. Its purpose is to destroy woman's consciousness about her potential power, which derives from the necessity of society to reproduce itself. By trying to affect woman's consciousness and her life options, patriarchy protects the appropriation of women's sexuality, their reproductive capacities, and their labor by individual men and society as a whole. Source: Eisenstein The radical future of liberal feminism 1981

11. CULTURE OF PATRIARCHY THESIS Advantages a) Integrates work with non-work factors b) Rational model: presents gender discrimination as a coherent strategy Disadvantages a) Theoretical: – Contradictory role of women Contradictory relationships of men b) Empirical: – Womens actual preferences