1. Assignment 502 Theories, principles and models in education and training
Petra Melville
Task B

2. Theory
A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained:
Darwin’s theory of evolution
A plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena
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3. Principle
A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning:
the basic principles of justice
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4. Model A thing used as an example to follow or imitate:
the project became a model for other schemes
A simplified description, especially a mathematical one, of a system or process, to assist calculations and predictions
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5. Effective communication
Achieves the intended result or response
Develops or maintains positive relationships
Encourages further communication
Promotes mutual respect
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6. Ineffective Communication
The intended message is misunderstood by the receiver
Does not promote mutual trust, respect and understanding
Is incomplete
Escalates into further misunderstandings
Promotes hostility
Results in effective actions
According to Wilson, learning is a result of effective communication, and communication is the art of passing a message. (Wilson, 2009). It is therefore imperative, that the communication which occurs between a teacher and a student, is effective.
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7. Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication
One of the SIMPLEST models
Sender plays the primary, active role and the receiver plays the secondary, passive role
Understanding NOISE will help to solve various problems
Interprets communication as a one- way process
The communication cycle theory, which elaborates on Shannon and Weaver’s model, gives the receiver an equal, active role, to the sender of the message. The latter is, as opposed to the former model, non-linear. This theory defines communication as a two-way process and stresses the importance of feedback from the receiver. When applied to education, learning occurs best if teaching, as well as communication, is a two way process.
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8. Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication
The communication cycle theory, which elaborates on Shannon and Weaver’s model, gives the receiver an equal, active role, to the sender of the message. The latter is, as opposed to the former model, non-linear. This theory defines communication as a two-way process and stresses the importance of feedback from the receiver.
When applied to education, learning occurs best if teaching, as well as communication, is a two way process.
An encoder
A message
A channel
A decoder
A receiver
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Based on Wilson, W. Practical Teaching, Cengage Learning, Hampshire, 2009

9. Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication
SEE PREVIOUS 2 SLIDES
When applied to education, learning occurs best if teaching, as well as communication, is a two way process HENCE the importance of FEEDBACK
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10. The communication cycle SEE PREVIOUS SLIDES When applied to education, learning occurs best if teaching, as well as communication, is a two way process HENCE the importance of FEEDBACK
Unlike Shannon and Weaver’s model, communication is NOT a one-way process
COMMUNICATION IS A TWO WAY PROCESS hence FEEDBACK
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11. Effective listening skills
Ensuring that what is learnt is what is taught
How can a teacher ensure that what is learnt is what is taught? A teacher needs to be, first of all, an epitome of an effective communicator and display characteristics such as: the appropriate body language, appearance, tone of voice and posture, embody professionalism (i.e. not letting personal issues affect the communication and ultimately the teaching and learning process), confidence and assertiveness. An effective communicator will also have good listening skills.
Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged in some sort of communication, of this an average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30% speaking, 16% reading and 9% writing. (Adler, R. et al. 2001).
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12. Effective listening skills (see the report for detailed description of barriers to communication
1. Stop Talking
“If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have two tongues and one ear.” Mark Twain.
2. Prepare Yourself to Listen
Relax. Focus on the speaker.
3. Put the Speaker at Ease
Help the speaker to feel free to speak. Remember their needs and concerns. Nod or use other gestures or words to encourage them to continue. Maintain eye contact but don’t stare – show you are listening and understanding what is being said.
4. Remove Distractions
5. Empathise
6. Be patient
7. Avoid personal prejudice
8. Listen to the tone
9. Listen for ideas, not just words: infer information to reveal the UNKNOWN AREA (see Johari’s window)
10. Wait and watch for non-verbal communication
How can a teacher ensure that what is learnt is what is taught? A teacher needs to be, first of all, an epitome of an effective communicator and display characteristics such as: the appropriate body language, appearance, tone of voice and posture, embody professionalism (i.e. not letting personal issues affect the communication and ultimately the teaching and learning process), confidence and assertiveness. An effective communicator will also have good listening skills.

13. Transactional Analysis
Wilson states that the current thinking in the post-compulsory sector is empathy, understanding and negotiation. (Wilson, 2009). What is beneficial for the student is also beneficial for the college-students’ success means the success of the college. Teaching, learning and assessment is therefore a joint project. Developing equal adult relationships can be facilitated through negotiating SMART targets. According to Petty, a teacher should set mastery and developmental SMART targets. Mastery targets are those which are time, not ability dependant and attainable by all students. These can be set from the minimum requirements for passing the programme. Developmental targets can be set for faster learners. SMART targets can also be used to manage difficult behaviour, as learners have a choice in the way they behave.
Parent ego state- the voice of authority
Child ego state- a dependent state. Both parent and child states are constantly being updated. Seeking assurances; displaying immature behaviours.
Adult ego state- an independent state. The ability to think and act responsibly and maturely.

14. Transactional Analysis
Physical
Verbal
Parent
Angry or impatient body-language and expressions, finger-pointing, patronising gestures
Always, never, for once and for all, judgmental words, critical words, patronising language, posturing language
Child
Emotionally sad expressions, despair, temper tantrums, whining voice, rolling eyes, shrugging shoulders, teasing, delight, laughter, speaking behind hand, raising hand to speak, squirming and giggling
Baby talk, I wish, I dunno, I want, I’m gonna, I don’t care, oh no, not again, things never go right for me, worst day of my life, bigger, biggest, best, many superlatives, words to impress
Adult
Attentive, interested, straight-forward, tilted head, non-threatening and non-threatened
Why, what, how, who, where and when, how much, in what way, comparative expressions, reasoned statements, true, false, probably, possibly, I think, I realise, I see, I believe, in my opinion
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Developed from various sources

15. Transactional Analysis
Effective Modes
Ineffective Modes
Structuring
Criticising
Inconsistent
Supporting
Interfering
Co-creating
Over-adapted
Oppositional
Playful
Reckless
analyses.htm
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16. Transactional Analysis
OK to OK communication invites OK to OK response
analyses.htm
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17. Transactional Analysis
EFFECTIVE MODES
Mindful process is a requirement for enabling effective modes to be accessed
Mindful process: the here and now, spontaneous, adapting to situations, accessing POSITIVE past experiences
STRUCTURING MODE: the boundary setting mode. Caring whilst firm
SUPPORTING MODE: affirming and considerate
CO-CREATING MODE: developing ways to co-operate with others
PLAYFUL MODE: curious, energetic mode. Playful confrontation
Developing equal adult relationships can be facilitated through negotiating Ground Rules and SMART targets
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18. Transactional Analysis
INEFFECTIVE MODES
all originate from OUTDATED experiences
CRITICISING MODE: (you are not OK) unlikely to develop a loyal supportive team. An individual believes that others (some) are incapable
INCONSISTENT MODE: (you are not OK) unpredictable, random behaviour; not helpful
INTERFERING MODE: (you are not OK) an individual who finds it difficult to delegate, offering to do things for other, capable individuals
OVER-ADAPTED MODE: (both not OK) an individual who suffers from depression, anxiety
OPPOSITIONAL MODE: (you are not OK) resisting to others, not free to think for ourselves, reactionary
RECKLESS MODE: no boundaries (you are not OK) not taking responsibility for one’s actions, an individual requiring a great deal of management
Developing equal adult relationships can be facilitated through negotiating Ground Rules and SMART targets
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19. Johari’s window Used to enhance the individual’s perception on others
Based on two ideas:
Trust can be acquired by revealing information about ourselves to others
Learning about ourselves from the feedback of others
Each four window pane signifies:
Personal feelings
Motivation
Whether that information is known or unknown to oneself or others
Each person is represented by the Johari window model through these four window panes
The teacher knows very little about the prospective student prior to enrolment and vice versa. Other students know very little about each other at the beginning of the programme. A teacher’s role is to increase the ‘open area’, making the hidden or unknown smaller. A teacher who has developed effective listening skills will also be able to infer information in order to reveal the unknown. This results in more effective learning and teaching, as well as interaction among other students. Initial assessments and negotiating ILPs is an opportunity to find out more about the student’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as anxieties. A student conducts research in order to find the right educational setting. The college can communicate the right message about its ethos via a website, a prospectus, a social network and via the first point of contact-the information desk/ enrolment services.
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20. Johari’s window please see previous slide and the report
Open/self – area or arena
Information about the person’s attitudes, behaviour, emotions and skills is known by the individual person as well as by others.
Main communication arena
The larger the arena, the more effective the relationship is
The arena can be increased through:
Feedback: LISTENING to the feedback from another person
Self-disclosure
Blind self or blind spot
Information about the person’s attitudes, behaviour, emotions and skills is known by others BUT NOT THE INDIVIDUAL
Caused by misinterpretation/miscommunication
Reduced by seeking feedback from others
Hidden area or façade
Information about the person’s attitudes, behaviour, emotions and skills is known by the individual person BUT NOT BY OTHERS.
The individual might feel RELUCTANT to reveal some information
May include fears, secrets, past experiences
Unknown area
Information about the person’s attitudes, behaviour, emotions and skills is UNKNOWN by the individual person AS WELL as by others.
May include talents
May be caused by repressed traumatic experiences
Must be uncovered by the individual or by others
Can be decreased by effective communication
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