1. 1 Traditions and Trajectories in Ancient India Jeffrey L. Richey, Ph.D. REL 231 Religions of India and Tibet Berea College Fall 2005

2. 2 THE INDUS RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATION Original inhabitants of northwestern India-Pakistan (c. 2500 BCE) Indus society: 1. Agricultural 2. Urban 3. Mercantile Indus religion: 1. Polytheistic (esp. goddesses) 2. Fertility-oriented By 1500 BCE, on brink of collapse, perhaps due to combination of natural and human disasters

3. 3 THE “ARYAN INVASION” Around 1500 BCE, “Aryan” peoples from southern Russia enter Indus region Aryan society: 1. Pastoral 2. Nomadic 3. Equestrian Aryan religion: 1. Polytheistic 2. Patriarchal Aryan language was ancestral to Sanskrit, oldest known in Indo-European family

4. 4 INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE & MYTHOLOGY Words in Indo-European languages share common ancestors: 1. English -- father 2. German -- Vater 3. Latin -- pater 4. Greek -- pater 5. Sanskrit – pitar Other examples: 1. English – divinity / ritual 2. Latin – divus / ritus 3. Sanskrit – deva / ŗta Deities in Indo-European traditions share common origins: 1. Norse -- Alfodr (“All Father,” i.e., Odin) 2. Latin – Diespiter (“Day Father,” i.e., Jupiter) 3. Greek – Zeuspater (“Father Zeus”) 4. Sanskrit – Dyauspitar (“Sky Father”) Thus, Sanskrit reveals deep links between ancient Indian and Western cultures

5. 5 INDO-ARYAN SOCIETY Divided into 4 hereditary occupational divisions (varņas = colors): 1. Brāhman (priest) 2. Kşatriya/Rājanya (warrior) 3. Vaiśya (merchant/artisan) 4. Śūdra (peasant) On margins of fourfold society are Dalits (so-called “untouchables”), who perform menial and polluting tasks: 1. Corpse handlers 2. Executioners 3. Hunters and fishermen 4. Leatherworkers

6. 6 THE VEDAS Concerned with orthopraxy (proper action) in ritual Brāhman authors edit oral liturgical traditions, producing Vedas (“knowledges”), c. 1200-600 BCE By 600 BCE, sūtras (“threads,” commentaries), or summaries of Vedas, become popular 4 collections (samhitās) of Vedas: 1. Ŗigveda (ŗic = praise stanzas sung by priests in ritual) 2. Sāmaveda (sāman = songs sung by priestly entourage) 3. Yajurveda (yajus = short incantations uttered by priests’ assistants in ritual) 4. Atharvaveda (therapeutic spells and hymns used by atharvans = healers)

7. 7 KARMAMARGA: THE WAY OF ACTION Ātman (“breath”) = 1. Essential element of person 2. Coexistent with body 3. Separable at death, when it ideally rejoins ancestors Ŗta (“right, rite”) = 1. Correct pattern 2. Cosmic order 3. Accomplished by orthopraxy Dharma (“law”) = 1. Fixed principles 2. Social order 3. Accomplished by obedience to varņa-specific obligations Ashramas (“stages of life”) for males of of three upper varņas: 1. Brahmaçarya (study with guru or master) 2. Grihastha (marriage, family, career) 3. Vānaprastha (partial withdrawal from social life) 4. Sannyāsa (complete renunciation of society, devotion to spiritual life) Women participate only in householder stage, with two likely fates: 1. Marginalization as widow 2. Predeceasing husband Gradually, goal of improved reincarnation through right action (karma) replaces reunion with ancestors

8. 8 TRANSCENDING THE VEDAS Later Vedic texts (c. 1000-800 BCE) show interest in inner truth underlying outer ritual Contemplation of Brahman (omnipresent, immaterial, ineffable source of all) supersedes sacrifices to deities Upanişads (“sitting down close at hand,” c. 600 BCE) record master- disciple dialogues related to quest to overcome avidya (ignorance) and gain jñana (knowledge) Levels of jñana: 1. Pratibhasika – grasping complete illusion (vaita, dualistic) 2. Vyavaharika – grasping conventional illusion (vaita, dualistic) 3. Paramarthika – grasping ultimate reality (advaita, nondualistic)

9. 9 UPANISHADIC ANTHROPOLOGY Ātman = the self’s 3 “bodies”: 1. Causal (innermost, where karma accumulates) 2. Subtle (middlemost, where sensory impressions are stored) 3. Gross (outermost, which houses other elements as physical form) Gross body disintegrates at death, but causal and subtle bodies are eternal and pass on in samsara (cycle of rebirth conditioned by karmic retribution)

10. 10 UPANISHADIC PSYCHOLOGY 3 psychic organs: 1. Çitta (subconscious – transmits sensory stimuli) 2. Manas (conscious mind – receives sensory stimuli) 3. Buddhi (intellect or will – evaluates sensory stimuli) 4 levels of consciousness: 1. Waking (dominated by material concerns and self-awareness) 2. Dreaming (dominated by material concerns and self- awareness) 3. Dreamless (free of material concerns but not self-awareness) 4. Meditative (free of material concerns and self-awareness)

11. 11 THE PATH TO JÑANA Householder preparation (study of Upanişads, fulfillment of dharma, moral rectitude) Renunciation of society and adoption of mendicant status Discipleship with guru Yoga (“work,” “union”): 1. Hatha-yoga -- gymnastic 2. Kundalini-yoga -- sexual 3. Patanjali-yoga – combination of meditative, physical, and moral disciplines Yogic self-cultivation eventually leads to samadhi (experience of undifferentiated unity with Brahman)

12. 12 JÑANAMARGA: THE WAY OF KNOWLEDGE Overcome maya (illusion, especially the illusion of separation between ātman and Brahman) Realize unity of Brahman and ātman: “That is the Real: That is the Self: That you are!” Avoid actions (karma) that promote selfishness and maximize selflessness Through knowledge of one’s true self and positive karma, attain mokşa (liberation from samsara and full union with Brahman)

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