1. Social and Cognitive Learning

2. Origins Classical and Operant conditioning railed against since their inception Dollard and Miller propose “Social Learning Theory” in 1940’s – Most learning done through observation of others in social context Social learning theorists believe that attitudes, beliefs and expectations affect our behaviors Called Social-cognitive learning theories today

3. Social-cognitive Learning Theories Emphasize interaction between thoughts, beliefs and expectations on one hand and behavior on the other Often emphasize the influence of immediate environment on person’s actions like behaviorists Differ in their belief that people choose the situations to get into in the first place, and thoughts and feelings affect behavior in the situation

4. 4 Phenomena of Social Cognitive Learning Latent learning- learning not immediately expressed (Tolman and Honzik 1930 Rats and Mazes) Observational Learning-learning by watching others and the consequences they receive (Bandura, Ross and Ross 1963 Aggression) Perceptions and Interpretations of events-2 People can look at something and see different things (Media and Violence Studies and Potential Bidirectional Ambiguity) Motivating Beliefs-any process that causes a person to move toward of goal or away from unpleasentness Major Factors – Locus of Control – Explanatory Style – Self-Efficacy

5. Locus of Control Are your actions under your control or the control of an external force? – based on past experiences we develop self- fulfilling prophecies-expectations lead to behavior that makes a prediction come true – The more internal the locus of control the more likely a person is to actively try to fix problems – Locus of control can vary across cultures – Can be affected by person’s position and experiences in society

6. Explanatory Style Optimism vs. pessimism Pessimists explain things as: – Internal – Stable – Global Optimists explain things as: – External – Unstable – Limited in impact

7. Self-Efficacy The conviction that you can successfully accomplish what you set out to do Comes from 4 sources: – Experience in mastering new skills and overcoming obstacles – Successful and competent role models – Feedback and encouragement from others – Learning to read and manage your own physiological state Deciding how to deal with failure via self-efficacy is what separates social-cognitive researchers from behaviorists Much of what we accomplish is based on the type of goals we set – Performance goals-put focus on success in performing and failure is seen as internal and no attempt is made to improve – Mastery goals-focus is on increasing competence and skills, failure is seen as part of learning process (more intrinsic value)

8. Learning the Rules of Gender Anatomically we are born male or female for most part Masculinity and Femininity (Gender) are learned according to social-cognitive theory Secure gender identity is not established until 4-5 – Gender identity-fundamental sense of maleness or femaleness Throughout life we experience gender typing – Gender typing-the norms of abilities, interests, traits and behaviors placed on an individual by society about what is masculine and what is feminine

9. Early Learning Theories about Gender Often times looked at explicit, intentional reinforcements as the cause of gender typing Found that children act out stereotypes regardless of what parents do and children are not passive imitators and are conformist in nature Now they look at: – Subtle and unintended reinforcers – Development of children’s cognitive understanding of gender – Specific situations a child is in

10. Hidden Reinforcers Parents and teachers often give subtle messages to children they do not even realize they are sending – (Fagot et al., 1985) Showed adults respond differently to boys and girls responding aggressively, led to distinct gender difference a year after testing – (Jacobs and Eccles 1985) Showed attitudes about math abilities in boys and girls affected outcome

11. Gender Schemas A mental network of beliefs, metaphors and expectations about what it means to be male or female Once formed, children seem to conform to this Boys gender schemas seem more rigid than girls. – May be due to status afforded to males in society

12. Gender in Social Context Importance of Gender changes depending on context of situation

13. Learning to be Moral A moral person is defined as someone who is kind, fair, and responsible (Schulman and Meckler, 1994) Involves empathy, intentions, conscience, considerate and responsible behavior Social Cognitive explanation extends understanding beyond biological, behavioral and cognitive approaches by being multi- faceted

14. Behavioral approach to Morality Based on rewards and punishments growing up Ignores the fact that rewarding good behavior does not produce life long good behavior Also ignores developing of cognitive categories such as “right and wrong” or “good and bad” Punishment can be counterproductive in teaching behavior

15. Cognitive Approach to Morality Based on Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 3 universal levels of moral development consisting of 2 stages each – Preconventional Morality (0-10) Stage 1-rules obeyed to avoid punishment Stage 2-in best interest to obey rules – Conventional Morality (10-11) Stage 1-based on conformity and loyalty to others Stage 2-understanding of principles of law and justice – Postconventional Morality (Not reached by all) Stage 1-some laws are immoral and must be changed Stage 2-Follow conscience over laws even at great risk

16. Kohlberg’s Theories Flaws Overlooks educational and cultural influences on moral reasoning People’s Moral Reasoning often inconsistent across situations Moral Reasoning is often unrelated to moral behavior

17. Gilligan’s Cognitive Theory (1982) Men base decisions on Abstract Principles of law and justice, women base decisions on compassion and caring Not founded in research Both sexes say they use compassion and fairness in coming to decisions Proves we can not assume that moral behavior is consistent, but depends on the situation and the issue

18. Social Cognitive Learning and Morality Moral Emotions – Individuals are seemingly inborn with a moral sense based on attachment to parents Causes adoption of parents standard of behavior Move from external reasons (punishment) to internal reasons (Shame) as they grow Allows for empathy, shame and guilt to develop – Empathy-ability to feel bad about another person’s unpleasantness – Shame-wound to the self-concept (how others perceive you) – Guilt-emotion felt when not living to internal standards Seems to apply across cultures

19. Parental Lessons – How parents deal with you will shape your moral standards – Power assertion (using strength advantage), often used, but prevents internalization of moral values and leads to a negative cycle of behavior based on inconsistency – Permissiveness will produce similar results – Induction seems to be the best strategy Requires statement of rules clearly and consistent enforcement with explanations for punishment

20. The Larger Culture – Adult expectations have a huge influence on moral behavior and these expectations vary widely across cultures Westerners more egotistic and less altruistic than people from eastern cultures