1. Dr. Nasim1 Carbohydrates AP Biochem

2. Dr. Nasim2 Monosaccharides (Single sugar residue)  3 C: Trioses  4 C: Tetroses  5 C: Pentoses  6 C: Hexoses

3. Dr. Nasim3 Monosaccharides (Single sugar residue)  (Aldose) (ketose)  Glyceraldehydes DHA - 3 C  Erythrose Erthrulose - 4 C  Ribose Ribulose - 5 C  XyloseXylulose 5 C  GlucoseFructose - 6 C

4. Dr. Nasim4 Monosaccharides  Aldoses: Those Monosaccharides which contain Aldehyde group. (H-C=O)  Ketose: Those Monosaccharides which contain keto group. (C=O)

5. Monosaccharides  Anomeric carbon: Aldoses & Ketose may cyclize to produce an Anomeric carbon.  Anomeric carbon contain reactive hydroxyl group. Dr. Nasim5

6. 6 Monosaccharides  If the Reactive hydroxyl group is free (Not attached to any other molecule) then the sugar is known as reducing sugars.  Reactive hydroxyl group may attached covalently to another molecule.  N-Glycosidic linkage: If the Reactive hydroxyl group is attached to–NH2 group.

7. Dr. Nasim7 Monosaccharides  O-Glycosidic linkage: If the Reactive hydroxyl group is attached to–OH group.  ISOMERS: If 2 compound have the same chemical formula. E.g. Fructose & glucose are isomers of each other.

8. Dr. Nasim8 Monosaccharides  Epimers: If 2 compound have the same chemical formula but the differ in configuration around 1 specific C atom.  Galactose & glucose are C 4 Epimers of each other.  Mannose & glucose are C 2 Epimers of each other.

9. Dr. Nasim9 Monosaccharides  Enantiomers: If 2 compound are mirror image of each others.  E.g. L - Glucose & D – Glucose.  The configuration of asymmetric carbon atom farthest from the aldehyde or keto group (with reference to D or L glyceraldehydes) determines whether a monosaccharide is of D or L series.  In D form OH gp is on right side & vice versa in left side.

10. Dr. Nasim10 Disaccharides (2 Monosaccharides units)  Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose  (α1-2 linkage)  Lactose = Glucose + Galactose  (β1-4 linkage)  Maltose = Glucose + Glucose  (α1-4 linkage)  Iso-malotose = Glucose + Glucose (α1-6)

11. Dr. Nasim11 Oligosaccharides (3-10 Monosaccharides)  E.g. Maltotriose: Compose of 3 Glucose residues.

12. Dr. Nasim12 Polysaccharides (>10 Monosaccharides units)  Homo Polysaccharides (contain same type of monosaccharides)  Glycogen which is also known as animal starch.  Dextrin  Dextran  Cellulose

13. Dr. Nasim13 Polysaccharides  Hetero Polysaccharides  (contain same type of monosaccharides or different monosaccharides along with prosthetic groups)  Muco Polysaccharides  Mucilages  Hemicellulose

14. Dr. Nasim14 Polysaccharides Polysaccharides  Hetero Polysaccharides  Muco Polysaccharides  Hyaluronic acid  Heparin  Chondroitin sulphate  Blood group Polysaccharides.  Serum mucoids

15. Dr. Nasim15 Polysaccharides  Hetero Polysaccharides  Mucilages  Agar  Vegetable  Pectin

16. Dr. Nasim16 Monosaccharides  Glyceraldehydes:  Reference sugar  All sugars are derived from it  D & L forms are refer to it  DHA  Produced from glucose in glycolysis & also from glycerol which is produced in break down of fats

17. Dr. Nasim17 Monosaccharides  Erythrose & Erthrulose  Produced from glucose in HMP shunt  Can be converted to glucose  Ribose  Produced from glucose in HMP shunt  Ribose component of RNA  Deoxy-Ribose component of RNA

18. Dr. Nasim18 Monosaccharides  Ribulose, Xylose & Xylulose  Produced from glucose in HMP shunt

19. Dr. Nasim19 Monosaccharides  Glucose  Grape sugar  Dextrose  Dextro-rotation  Most common source sucrose which is table sugar  Main source of energy for body & specially brain.

20. Dr. Nasim20 Monosaccharides  Glucose (Cont.)  FBS 60 – 100 mg/dl  RBS 100 – 160 mg/dl  On reduction glucose forms alcohol e.g. Sorbitol  On oxidation sugar acids  Gluconic acid If oxidation of C1 of glucose

21. Dr. Nasim21 Monosaccharides  Glucose (Cont.)  Glucuronic acid If oxidation of C6 of glucose  Glucaric acid If oxidation of C1& C6 of glucose  Glucuronic acid is used for detoxification of various toxic substances

22. Dr. Nasim22 Monosaccharides  Galactose  Main source Lactose which is milk sugar  C 4 epimer of glucose  Mannose  Can be converted to glucose  On reduction forms Mannitol

23. Dr. Nasim23 Monosaccharides Monosaccharides  Fructose  Levulose.  Levo-rotation.  Sweetest among all sugars.  Most common source Sucrose (table sugar).  Pure honey = Fructose only.  Fructose  Glucose.  Entry into cells is independent of Insulin.  Source of energy for sperms.

24. Dr. Nasim24 Disaccharides  Maltose = Glucose + Glucose (α1-4)  Fruit sugar  Reducing sugar  Produced from starch by hydrolysis due to salivary & pancreatic amylase.  Hydrolyzed by Maltase

25. Dr. Nasim25 Disaccharides  Lactose = Glucose+ Galactose ( β1-4 )  Milk sugar  Reducing sugar  Hydrolyzed by Lactase

26. Dr. Nasim26 Disaccharides  Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose (α1-2)  Cane sugar  Table sugar  Non-reducing sugar  Invert sugar  Hydrolyzed by Sucrase (Invertase)

27. Dr. Nasim27 Polysaccharides  Homo Polysaccharides  Glycogen  Store from of Glucose  Present mostly in Liver & Muscles.  Animal starch  Branched structure (Tree like)  Less then 12 glucose residues

28. Dr. Nasim28 Polysaccharides  Homo Polysaccharides  Glycogen (Cont.1)  Within a chain (α1-4) broken by Phosphorylase enzyme.  At branch point (α1-6) broken by de- branching enzyme.  Blood glucose levels are usually maintained by Liver glycogen stores.

29. Dr. Nasim29 Polysaccharides  Homo Polysaccharides  Starch  Most of dietary carbohydrates are in this form.  2 types  Amylose (Straight chain)  Amylopectin (Branched structure) more then 12 residues in each chain.

30. Dr. Nasim30 Polysaccharides  Homo Polysaccharides  Starch (Cont.)  Hydrolyzed by salivary & Pancreatic amylase into Maltose, Maltotriose & dextrins.

31. Dr. Nasim31 Polysaccharides  Homo Polysaccharides  Dextrins  Intermediate product of hydrolysis of starch.  E.g. Amylodextrins, Erythrodextrins & Achrodextrins.

32. Dr. Nasim32 Polysaccharides  Homo Polysaccharides  Dextrans  Highly viscous.  Plasma expander.  Cellulose  Can’t be digested.  Increase bulk of stool. Polysaccharides

33. Dr. Nasim33 Polysaccharides  Hetero Polysaccharides  Muco Polysaccharides  Animal origin  Mucoprotein & Mucin (when in combination with proteins)

34. Dr. Nasim34 Polysaccharides  Hetero Polysaccharides  Muco Polysaccharides  Subtypes  Hyaluronic Acid  Chondroitin sulphate  Heparin  Blood group Polysaccharides  Serum mucoids

35. Dr. Nasim35 Polysaccharides Muco Polysaccharides  Hyaluronic Acid (Cementing agent)  Present in skin, synovial fluid, seminal fluid & vitreous humor.  Functions  Prevents penetration of bacteria into skin  Lubrication of the joints  Helps in fertilization  Hydrolyzed by Hyaluronidase

36. Dr. Nasim36 Polysaccharides Muco Polysaccharides  Chondroitin sulphate

37. Dr. Nasim37 Polysaccharides Muco Polysaccharides  Heparin

38. Dr. Nasim38 Polysaccharides Muco Polysaccharides  Blood group Polysaccharides

39. Dr. Nasim39 Polysaccharides Muco Polysaccharides  Serum mucoids

40. Dr. Nasim40 Polysaccharides  Mucilages  Plant origin  Agar  Non-digestible  Laxative  Culture media

41. Dr. Nasim41 Polysaccharides  Vegetable gums  Used in pharmaceutical industry  Pectins  For making jellies  Hemicellulose

42. Dr. Nasim42 Asymmetric carbon atom  Asymmetric carbon atom: The carbon atom to which 4 different chemical groups are attached & it can rotate plain polarized light to the right or to the left.  E.g. Open chain formula of Glucose contains 4 Asymmetric carbon atoms. (C2, 3, 4 & 5).  E.g. Close chain formula of Glucose contains 5 Asymmetric carbon atoms. (C1, 2, 3, 4 & 5).

43. Dr. Nasim43 Optical Isomers  Those sugars which rotates plain polarized light to right are (d) sugars & which to left are (l) sugars.  Racemic Mixture:  Such a solution which contains equal amount of Levo & dextro-rotatory then rotation of light will be equal but in opposite direction.

44. Dr. Nasim44 Ring Structure  Hemiacetal ring: if the ring is formed by aldehyde gp.  Hemiketal ring: if the ring is formed by keto gp.  Pyranose Ring: 6 sided ring. O2 bridge b/w C1 & C5.  Furanose Ring: 5 sided ring. O2 bridge b/w C1 & C4.

45. Dr. Nasim45 Anomeric carbon  C of Aldehyde or keto gp forming hemiacetal or Hemiketal rings.  C1 in Aldo-sugars. E.g. glucose  C2 in keto sugars. E.g. fructose

46. Dr. Nasim46 Mutarotation  The direction of plain polarized light in a freshly prepared glucose solution goes on changing for some time before settling to specific direction.  Reason: unfolding of ring structure to striaght chain in order to maintain equilibrium b/w α & β forms of sugars.

47. Dr. Nasim47 Phenomenon of Inversion