1. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 1 Cell Facts rev 12-12 Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life The activity of an organism depends on the activity of its cells The biochemical activities of a cell are dictated by its organelles The continuity of life has a cellular basis- –all cells come from pre-existing cells and –the survival of life is contingent on the work of cells

2. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 2 All cells are surrounded by an outer membrane called the cell membrane or plasma membrane (PM). Cells are classified as either eukaryotes or prokaryotes, depending on their internal organization Eukaryotes have: (Humans are eukaryotes) –A plasma membrane –A nucleus which is a compartment surrounded by a membrane. The compartment contains genetic information and generally directs all the functions of the cell. –Cytoplasm: composed of a gel-like fluid called cytosol. –Organelles: structures with specialized functions which are located in the cytosol of the cytoplasm.

3. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 3 Prokaryotes have no nucleus or true organelles –They have a plasma membrane which is surrounded by a rigid cell wall. –Their genetic material is not necessarily enclosed within a nucleus Animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, and algae all possess eukaryotic cell types. Only bacteria have prokaryotic cell types. Cell Structure Reflects Cell Function All cells carry out defined activities to maintain life: - Gather raw materials -- Make macromolecules -Excrete wastes -- Grow and reproduce

4. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 4 Structural differences between cells generally reflect functional differences –Muscle cells: contain numerous organelles providing energy needed for muscle contraction –Nerve cells: are long and thin to carry impulses over distance –Some cells have microvilli, small projections of the plasma membrane, to increase their surface area All raw materials, energy, waste and information can enter or leave the cell only by moving across the plasma (cell) membrane

5. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 5 The Structure of the Plasma Membrane Constructed of 2 layers of Phospholipids (called a lipid bilayer), cholesterol, and some proteins –Phospholipids: are lipids with a polar head and nonpolar tail. The lipids are arranged so the nonpolar tails meet in the center of the membrane. So, one layer of polar heads faces the watery solution on the outside of the cell and the other layer faces the watery solution of the cytoplasm. –Cholesterol: makes the membrane more rigid –Proteins: are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer and provide means of transporting molecules and information across the membrane; some proteins anchor the cell’s internal support network

6. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 6 The plasma membrane creates a barrier between the external cell environment and the internal cell environment. By regulating the environment, the PM keeps the materials needed for growth and reproduction inside the cell and determines what and when other materials should be allowed to enter the cell. Molecules cross the plasma membrane in 3 major ways: passive transport (diffusion and osmosis), active transport, and endocytosis or exocytosis.

7. http://www.wisc- online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID= AP15305 interactive video on anatomical terminologyhttp://www.wisc- online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID= AP15305 BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 7

8. 8 Passive Transport: transports a molecule without requiring the cell to use any energy. It relies on the mechanism of diffusion. –Diffusion—movement of molecules from one region to another as the result of random motion. Molecules in a gas or a liquid move about randomly, hitting other molecules and changing direction. –If there are more molecules in one region than in another, then, simply by chance, molecules move away or diffuse from the area of high concentration towards the area of low concentration. –So, diffusion requires that there be a difference in concentration, called a concentration gradient, between 2 areas.

9. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 9 Diffusion: Passive Transport Passive transport: no energy required Diffusion: movement from area of high concentration to low Figure 3.6

10. Cell Facts & Tissues-BIO 006 Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. –Water moves from the region of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration For example, water moves from the solution (99% water) to the cell (98% water) –All substances do not readily diffuse into and out of living cells because the plasma membrane is selectively permeable—it allows some substances to cross but not others. –The plasma membrane is highly permeable to water but not to all ions or molecules. 10BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 10

11. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 11 Three Forms of Passive Transport Passive transport always uses the concentration gradient and thus relies on diffusion without the using any additional energy. Diffusion through the lipid bilayer: –This structure allows some molecules to move through the PM and prevents others.

12. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 12 Diffusion through channels –The channels are constructed of proteins that span the entire lipid bilayer. –The size, shape, and electrical charge of the channel determine which molecules are able to pass through. –Some channels are open all the time (i.e. water channels). –Some channels are gated; they can only open and close under certain conditions.

13. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 13 Facilitated Transport or Facilitated Diffusion –The molecule attaches to a transport or carrier membrane protein in order to pass through the channel. –Once the molecule is attached, a change in the protein’s shape or orientation occurs; –this change actually transfers the molecule to the other side of the membrane where it is released. –Once the molecule is released, the protein returns to its original form.

14. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 14 Active Transport requires energy to move substances through the PM against the concentration gradient. –Energy source is ATP. As it is broken down to ADP the released energy carries one or more molecules across the PM against the concentration gradient. allows a cell to get essential molecules even when their concentration outside the cell is low and to get rid of molecules which it doesn’t need. Proteins which actively transport molecules across the PM are called pumps.

15. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 15 One of the most important PM pumps is the sodium-potassium pump. This pump uses energy from ATP  ADP + P i to transport sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell. Na  out of cellK  into cell

16. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 16 Active transport requires energy to move substances from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration.

17. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 17 Endocytosis and Exocytosis Some molecules are too big to be transported by active or passive transport. Cells use endocytosis and/or exocytosis to move large molecules Endocytosis moves materials into the cell Exocytosis moves materials out of the cells

18. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 18 Active Transport: The Sodium/Potassium Pump Sodium/potassium pump expels unwanted ions, keeps needed ones, maintains cell volume ATP used to expel three sodium ions for every two potassium ions brought into the cell To increase cell volume = increase water in cytoplasm by decreasing the pump and allowing more sodium inside cell To decrease cell volume = less water in cytoplasm by increasing the pump and expelling more sodium ions

19. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 19 Tonicity of ECF Tonicity is the relative concentration of solutes in 2 liquids Because water can diffuse across the PM easily, the ability of the cell to control its volume is dependent upon the tonicity of the ECF. Isotonic: ECF has the same solute concentration as the ICF (intracellular fluid). The body’s regulatory mechanisms ensure that the ECF solute concentration remains relatively constant. Hypertonic: When the ECF concentration is higher than the intracellular fluid, water diffuses out of the cell and the cell shrinks. This will impair normal function and lead to cell death.

20. Hypertonic When the fluid outside the cells has a greater concentration of dissolved substance and therefore a LOWER concentration of water than the inside the cells, it is called hypertonic. See example below: The outside water concentration (98.5%) is lower than the concentration of water inside the cells (99.1%). (Hypertonic solutions have a higher concentration of solutes which means less room for water) By osmosis, water diffuses from high to low concentration. This results in the water moving out of the cell faster than the water enters. The cell shrinks. Cell fluid is 99.1% water and 0.9% NaCl Fluid outside cell contains 98.5% water and 1.5% NaCl Shrunken cell Water leaves the cell BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 20

21. Hypotonic: When the ECF concentration is lower than the intracellular fluid (fluid outside the cells has a lower concentration of solutes in it than the fluid inside the cells), water diffuses into the cell and the cell swells and may burst. This will impair normal function and lead to cell death. –(Hypotonic solutions have less solute present which means more room for water) BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 21

22. Hypotonic Cell fluid is 99.1% water and 0.9% NaCl Fluid outside cell contains 100% water and 0% NaCl Water Hemolysis or cell swells and bursts Water moves into the cell BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 22

23. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 23 Variations in Tonicity-a Summary Isotonic: extracellular and intracellular concentration equal Hypotonic: extracellular concentration less than intracellular Hypertonic: extracellular concentration more than intracellular

24. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 24 Structure and Function of the Nucleus Functions: Information center of the cell Contains the genetic information of the cell in the form of DNA Controls the cell Structural features: Outer surface is a double-layered nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane has nuclear pores which permit some small proteins and RNA through but not DNA Nucleolus: RNA and proteins which make up ribosomes are made. The components of the ribosomes pass through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm for final assembly into ribosomes.

25. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 25 Ribosomes and Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Ribosomes: responsible for protein assembly. Float freely in cytoplasm or are attached to the ER. –Ribosomes attached to the ER release proteins into the folds of the ER –Free floating ribosomes produce proteins for use by the cell

26. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 26 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (and the ribosomes) manufacture proteins and chemical compounds produced by the cell. Is an extensively folded membranous system Some areas of the ER’s surface are dotted with ribosomes and are called Rough ER. –Areas without ribosomes are called Smooth ER. Rough ER: protein synthesis and release (to smooth ER); Smooth ER: also synthesizes lipids; packages proteins and lipids for transfer to the Golgi Apparatus.

27. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 27 Golgi Apparatus Stack of membranous sacs which receive substances from ER (usually proteins), refines and packages them Figure 3.17 (1/2)

28. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 28 Vesicles Are membrane-bound spheres that enclose something within the cell. –Ship and store cellular products –Secretory vesicles Contain products that need to be exported from the cell Endocytotic vesicles Enclose bacteria and raw materials from the extracellular environment and bring these into the cell by endocytosis.

29. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 29 –Peroxisomes and lysosomes Contain powerful enzymes that must be stored within the vesicle so they don’t damage the rest of the cell Peroxisomes have enzymes that destroy toxic wastes Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that digest bacteria; dissolve and remove cellular debris

30. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 30 Mitochondria: Provide Energy to the Cell is the cells’ “power plant” Has a double membrane; the inner membrane contains enzymes that break down foods Liberate energy used to create ATP Manufactures ATP as it is needed by the cell. Figure 3.19a

31. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 31 Krebs cycle (also called the Citric Acid Cycle) (takes place in the mitochondria) –Releases high-energy electrons –Produces two ATP and carbon dioxide Electron transport system (takes place in the mitochondria) energy rich electrons are transferred from 1 protein carrier molecule to another so that energy from the electrons can be released in manageable quantities Energy from electrons is used to produce ATP Produces water and carbon dioxide as a waste by- product

32. Cytoskeleton: has microtubules & microfilaments to help form the framework for the plasma membrane; also supports and anchors the other structures within the cell BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 32

33. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 33 Cell Structures for Support and Movement: Cilia, Flagella, Centrioles Cilia and flagella provide movement. Centrioles: used in cell division Figure 3.21

34. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 34 Energy Storage Cells store energy. Can be stored as: –Fat—long term energy –Glycogen (carbohydrate storage)—short term energy most cells rely on glycogen rather than on fat because the energy in the chemical bonds of glycogen can produce ATP more quickly

35. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 35 Cells Use and Transform Matter and Energy: Two Basic Metabolic Pathways Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions used by an organism. 2 basic types of metabolic pathways: Anabolism: Making of larger molecules –requires enzymes to perform chemical reaction –usually requires energy (ATP) –Used in building up cell components –Used in storing energy

36. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 36 Catabolism: –Breaking down of molecules; used in breaking down nutrients/recycling cell components –requires enzymes to perform chemical reaction –Releases stored energy from the cell –Follows the Citric Acid or Kreb’s cycle to release energy

37. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 37 Additional Energy Sources Most of the body’s energy reserves are stored as fats (78%) and proteins (21%), glycogen (1%) When we take in too many calories as we need, some of this energy replenishes the body’s stores of glycogen. The rest is converted to fat and stored in fat tissue Fats are stored as triglycerides; fats have twice the energy of carbohydrates Proteins have the same energy as carbohydrates

38. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 38 Anaerobic Metabolism For small periods of time, a small amount of ATP can be made without oxygen being used. However, lactic acid is formed as a waste by- product. –This causes a burning sensation in your muscles and can also cause muscle cramps. –Muscle fatigue sets in more quickly. –When oxygen is available, the lactic acid will be metabolized (used up). –Anaerobic metabolism produces only 2 ATP molecules.

39. BIO 102 Structure & Function of Cells HANDOUT 39 Aerobic Metabolism –Requires oxygen –Yields 36 ATP; produces carbon dioxide as a by-product After exercise, oxygen metabolizes the lactic acid (from anerobic metabolism) and replenishes energy stores The term oxygen debt describes the continued increased metabolism that must occur in a cell to remove the excess acid that accumulates during prolonged exercise.