1. VIRGIL 70BCE-19BCE

2. PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARO As is often the case, reliable biographical information is difficult to come by. As is often the case, reliable biographical information is difficult to come by. Much of what is know of Virgil’s early life is thought to depend upon a lost biography by his contemporary, Varius, which was later incorporated into that of Suetonius. Much of what is know of Virgil’s early life is thought to depend upon a lost biography by his contemporary, Varius, which was later incorporated into that of Suetonius. Tradition holds that he was born in Cisalpine Gaul in 70BCE. Tradition holds that he was born in Cisalpine Gaul in 70BCE. Likely of the equestrian order. Likely of the equestrian order. ‘[he] was tall…with a dark complexion and a rustic appearance…he spoke very slowly and almost like an uneducated man…’ ‘[he] was tall…with a dark complexion and a rustic appearance…he spoke very slowly and almost like an uneducated man…’ Yet when he read his poems, his delivery was sweet and wonderfully effective’ – Suetonius life of Virgil p. 467-74 trans. Rolfe J. C. Yet when he read his poems, his delivery was sweet and wonderfully effective’ – Suetonius life of Virgil p. 467-74 trans. Rolfe J. C. He wrote three major works of Latin literature: The Eclogues, the Georgics and the Aeneid He wrote three major works of Latin literature: The Eclogues, the Georgics and the Aeneid

3. PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARO II At some point Virgil was brought to the attention of Maecenas, a benefactor of poets and personal friend or Octavian. At some point Virgil was brought to the attention of Maecenas, a benefactor of poets and personal friend or Octavian. In Satire 1.5 Horace describes a journey from Rome with Maecenas during which they meet another group of which Virgil is part. In Satire 1.5 Horace describes a journey from Rome with Maecenas during which they meet another group of which Virgil is part. ‘o qui complexus et gaudia!’ He exclaims. ‘o qui complexus et gaudia!’ He exclaims. With Maecenas as patron, pro-imperial propagandistic elements can be found in all of Virgil’s works. With Maecenas as patron, pro-imperial propagandistic elements can be found in all of Virgil’s works.

4. PASTORAL POETRY Like the vast majority of Roman poems, theEclogues have a Greek model. Like the vast majority of Roman poems, theEclogues have a Greek model. Callimachus, a Hellenistic poet, insisted that poetry should be free from politics and indeed ‘serious’ subject matter and should instead function as a celebration of language, dealing only with pleasant themes. Callimachus, a Hellenistic poet, insisted that poetry should be free from politics and indeed ‘serious’ subject matter and should instead function as a celebration of language, dealing only with pleasant themes. Theocritus, another Hellenistic poet, invented a genre of poetry that used Homeric hexameters to express notably ‘un-Homeric’ themes: Singing contests, love affairs, the rivalries of shepherds and herdsmen for whom competing in song was the only means of relieving boredom etc… Theocritus, another Hellenistic poet, invented a genre of poetry that used Homeric hexameters to express notably ‘un-Homeric’ themes: Singing contests, love affairs, the rivalries of shepherds and herdsmen for whom competing in song was the only means of relieving boredom etc… And goats. And goats. Names such as ‘Daphnis’ would become a staple of the genre, and return again in Virgil’s Eclogues and later works of Greek prose fiction. Names such as ‘Daphnis’ would become a staple of the genre, and return again in Virgil’s Eclogues and later works of Greek prose fiction. Virgil appropriated the Theocritean model, but used adapted it so that his poems dealt with contemporary Roman issues without abandoning the pastoral genre. Virgil appropriated the Theocritean model, but used adapted it so that his poems dealt with contemporary Roman issues without abandoning the pastoral genre.

5. PASTORAL POETRY CONTINUED Pastoral poetry, like many Hellenistic innovations, is self-reflexive. Pastoral poetry, like many Hellenistic innovations, is self-reflexive. The works of both Virgil and Theocritus display a self-conscious awareness of their own status as art. The works of both Virgil and Theocritus display a self-conscious awareness of their own status as art. Notably, not all of Theocritus’ works featured shepherds. Notably, not all of Theocritus’ works featured shepherds. One of his ostensibly pastoral poems sings the praises of Ptolemy II, for example. One of his ostensibly pastoral poems sings the praises of Ptolemy II, for example. Similarly, Virgil too abandons the shepherd staple in Eclogue IV to prophesise the birth of a son who will bring back the Golden Age. Similarly, Virgil too abandons the shepherd staple in Eclogue IV to prophesise the birth of a son who will bring back the Golden Age. Many Christians, from Lactantius onwards, took this to be a prophecy of the birth of Christ, further augmenting Virgil’s almost legendary fame long after his death. Many Christians, from Lactantius onwards, took this to be a prophecy of the birth of Christ, further augmenting Virgil’s almost legendary fame long after his death. The ‘child’ in question is more likely a reference to the expectation that Octavian’s sister, Octavia, would bare Mark Antony a son. The ‘child’ in question is more likely a reference to the expectation that Octavian’s sister, Octavia, would bare Mark Antony a son.

6. ECLOGUES Composed during the 2 nd Triumvirate (42-39BCE) while the relationship between Octavian and Mark Antony was under strain. Composed during the 2 nd Triumvirate (42-39BCE) while the relationship between Octavian and Mark Antony was under strain. They resolved their differences in 40BCE with the Treaty of Brundisium and divided the Empire between them. They resolved their differences in 40BCE with the Treaty of Brundisium and divided the Empire between them. The Eclogues are thought to have been an immediate success. The Eclogues are thought to have been an immediate success. Some of the dialogues were performed in theatres. Some of the dialogues were performed in theatres. Quotations and parodies abounded. Quotations and parodies abounded. They were considered a landmark in the history of Latin poetry owing to the elegance with which Virgil handled the hexameter verse and maintained exquisite control overthe rhythmic patterns. They were considered a landmark in the history of Latin poetry owing to the elegance with which Virgil handled the hexameter verse and maintained exquisite control overthe rhythmic patterns.

7. ECLOGUE IV The aforementioned ‘Prophetic Eclogue.’ The aforementioned ‘Prophetic Eclogue.’ Although the Octavia’s son interpretation does appear valid, the text does remain ambiguous. Although the Octavia’s son interpretation does appear valid, the text does remain ambiguous. One might assume that this was a conscious decision on the part of the poet. One might assume that this was a conscious decision on the part of the poet. Note the reference to Asinius Pollio, a patron of poets though to be responsible from introducing Virgil to Maecenas/Octavian. Note the reference to Asinius Pollio, a patron of poets though to be responsible from introducing Virgil to Maecenas/Octavian. Not a representation of reality. Not a representation of reality. The poem conceals the realities and oppressions of the rural class in a manner that suits the ruling elite. The poem conceals the realities and oppressions of the rural class in a manner that suits the ruling elite.

8. ECLOGUE V Dialogue between Menalcus and Mopsus Dialogue between Menalcus and Mopsus Mopsus Laments and celebrates the deceased Daphnis. Mopsus Laments and celebrates the deceased Daphnis. Menalcus sings of his Apotheosis. Menalcus sings of his Apotheosis. Are we to read it a an allegory for the death and deification of Julius Caesar? Are we to read it a an allegory for the death and deification of Julius Caesar?

9. ECLOGUE VI ‘The song of Silenus.’ ‘The song of Silenus.’ The companion and tutor of Dionysus in Greek mythology. The companion and tutor of Dionysus in Greek mythology. Associated with truth and wisdom. Associated with truth and wisdom. Is he a device used to reveal the ‘proper’ subject matter of the epic poet? Is he a device used to reveal the ‘proper’ subject matter of the epic poet? Conventional epic appears to be rejected at the poems inception? Conventional epic appears to be rejected at the poems inception?

10. ECLOGUE VIII Damon and Alphesiboeus. Damon and Alphesiboeus. A more traditionally Theocritean work of pastoral? A more traditionally Theocritean work of pastoral? A further reference of Pollio – ‘accept the songs begun at your command…’ A further reference of Pollio – ‘accept the songs begun at your command…’

11. ECLOGUE X Gallus’ love. Gallus’ love. Gallus’ Amores provide a further literary model for this work. Gallus’ Amores provide a further literary model for this work. A debate about the limitations and deficiencies of literary models. A debate about the limitations and deficiencies of literary models. ‘let us speak if Gallus’ anxious love, while the snub-nosed goats crop the tender thickets.’ lines 6-7 ‘let us speak if Gallus’ anxious love, while the snub-nosed goats crop the tender thickets.’ lines 6-7 A acknowledgement of the failure of the pastoral genre to deal with matters of love? A acknowledgement of the failure of the pastoral genre to deal with matters of love? Basket weaving as a metaphor for the composition of poetry. Basket weaving as a metaphor for the composition of poetry. A metaphor that was familiar since Catullus. A metaphor that was familiar since Catullus. ‘Extremum laborem’. Self-consciously the final Eclogue in the collection. ‘Extremum laborem’. Self-consciously the final Eclogue in the collection. Circular ‘shade’ motif. Circular ‘shade’ motif.