1. Standardisation, modernisation and harmonisation in relation to socioterminology Dr Mariëtta Alberts Manager: Standardisation and Terminology Development Pan South African Language Board

2. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20062 1.Introduction Although terminology can be regarded as an artificial language, the terminologist has to take various sociolinguistic factors into consideration in term creation and dictionary compilation. Although terminology can be regarded as an artificial language, the terminologist has to take various sociolinguistic factors into consideration in term creation and dictionary compilation. This presentation will deal with the following related socioterminological aspects : This presentation will deal with the following related socioterminological aspects : Standardisation Standardisation Modernisation Modernisation Spelling and orthography Spelling and orthography Harmonisation or unification Harmonisation or unification Taboo terms and hlonipa/tlotta Taboo terms and hlonipa/tlotta

3. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20063 2.Standardisation Crystal (1985) defines standardisation as a natural development in a speech community of a standard language or an attempt by a community to impose one dialect as a standard. Crystal (1985) defines standardisation as a natural development in a speech community of a standard language or an attempt by a community to impose one dialect as a standard. According to Hudson (1980) standardisation is a direct and deliberate intervention by society to create a standard language where before there were just ‘dialects’ (non-standard varieties). According to Hudson (1980) standardisation is a direct and deliberate intervention by society to create a standard language where before there were just ‘dialects’ (non-standard varieties).

4. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20064 2. Standardisation (cont.) Standard languages are usually associated with prestige and cut across regional differences, providing a unified means of communication. Standard languages are usually associated with prestige and cut across regional differences, providing a unified means of communication. Standardisation is necessary to Standardisation is necessary to facilitate communication, facilitate communication, provide a uniform form for learning material and dictionaries, and provide a uniform form for learning material and dictionaries, and for the establishment of agreed orthography and spelling rules. for the establishment of agreed orthography and spelling rules.

5. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20065 2. Standardisation (cont.) The standard language is an institutionalised norm which can be used in mass media, economic sector, education, science and technology: The standard language is an institutionalised norm which can be used in mass media, economic sector, education, science and technology: ConceptSymbol Linguistic representation * I i 1 one, een, eins, uno, tee, nngwe, inye, ukunye * I i 1 one, een, eins, uno, tee, nngwe, inye, ukunye ** II ii 2 two, twee, zwei, duo, pedi, bobedi, isibini, isibili ** II ii 2 two, twee, zwei, duo, pedi, bobedi, isibini, isibili Standardised terms ensure exact communication among subject specialists themselves, but also between subject specialists and laypeople. Standardised terms ensure exact communication among subject specialists themselves, but also between subject specialists and laypeople.

6. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20066 2. Standardisation (cont.) As such standards are important elements in the teaching and training of subject related topics. As such standards are important elements in the teaching and training of subject related topics. The initiation phase into any specialised field or domain goes through the learning of The initiation phase into any specialised field or domain goes through the learning of its main concepts, its main concepts, the definitions describing these concepts, and the definitions describing these concepts, and the terms denoting them. the terms denoting them. A plant with a trunk, roots, branches and leaves tree boom Baum

7. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20067 2. Standardisation (cont.) Lexicographers, terminologists and terminographers work with standards – albeit the standard variety of a language or standards as such. Lexicographers, terminologists and terminographers work with standards – albeit the standard variety of a language or standards as such. Lexicographers document the vocabulary of a standard language. Lexicographers document the vocabulary of a standard language. Terminographers document the (standardised) terminology of the standard variety of a language Terminographers document the (standardised) terminology of the standard variety of a language

8. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20068 2. Standardisation (cont.) It is important for the terminologist to consult with other dialects or languages to see whether a concept is already named It is important for the terminologist to consult with other dialects or languages to see whether a concept is already named (UK maize / US corn). It is much easier to coin a new term in the relevant language according to existing terms in other language(s) (thermophile/termofiel/thermophil/thermophile/termofilo/ thermofiel/termopila). It is much easier to coin a new term in the relevant language according to existing terms in other language(s) (thermophile/termofiel/thermophil/thermophile/termofilo/ thermofiel/termopila). In other words, to make use of existing terms in the standard varieties of languages and their dialects by means of transliterations, borrowing or total embedding. In other words, to make use of existing terms in the standard varieties of languages and their dialects by means of transliterations, borrowing or total embedding.

9. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 20069 2. Standardisation (cont.) Terminologists document terminology with the aim of providing subject specialists and laypeople with standardised terms that denote the corresponding concepts. Terminologists document terminology with the aim of providing subject specialists and laypeople with standardised terms that denote the corresponding concepts. It is of the utmost importance to use standardised terms in subject related work. It is of the utmost importance to use standardised terms in subject related work. billion: 10 9 or 10 12 ? billion: 10 9 or 10 12 ? ConceptEnglish/German American/French 10 9 milliardbillion 10 12 billiontrillion

10. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200610 2. Standardisation (cont.) The increasing use of non-standard language in the classroom often has dire consequences for learners and for the traditional language alimentary canal digestive tract gastrointestinal tract

11. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200611 3.Modernisation No living language is static. A living language change and therefore it needs to be modernised. No living language is static. A living language change and therefore it needs to be modernised. Language modernisation is a co-operative venture between government agencies (i.e. language bureaux) and the speakers of the language. Language modernisation is a co-operative venture between government agencies (i.e. language bureaux) and the speakers of the language. Modernisation entails that the spelling and orthography rules of a language need to be revised on a regular basis. Modernisation entails that the spelling and orthography rules of a language need to be revised on a regular basis. An orthography is to literacy what numeration is to numeracy (EN Emenanjo, 1998) An orthography is to literacy what numeration is to numeracy (EN Emenanjo, 1998)

12. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200612 4.Spelling and orthography New and unified spelling and orthography systems should be created for the languages selected for standardisation. New and unified spelling and orthography systems should be created for the languages selected for standardisation. Establishing well standardised, efficient and practical spelling and orthography rules, is a crucial basis for developing a modern literacy tradition. Establishing well standardised, efficient and practical spelling and orthography rules, is a crucial basis for developing a modern literacy tradition.

13. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200613 4. Spelling and orthography (cont.) An efficient and practical spelling and orthography is a direct function of enabling educational, cultural, administrative and mass media system in the countries concerned (Abdulaziz, 1991). An efficient and practical spelling and orthography is a direct function of enabling educational, cultural, administrative and mass media system in the countries concerned (Abdulaziz, 1991). Lexicographers and terminographers adhere to the spelling and orthography rules of the standard variety of a language when compiling dictionaries. Lexicographers and terminographers adhere to the spelling and orthography rules of the standard variety of a language when compiling dictionaries.

14. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200614 5.Harmonisation Nearly all the countries in the African continent are multilingual. Nearly all the countries in the African continent are multilingual. This plethora of languages in a single country has posed formidable challenges to national development, national stability, socio- economic advancement, and sound educational policies. This plethora of languages in a single country has posed formidable challenges to national development, national stability, socio- economic advancement, and sound educational policies. Multilingualism has a vital influence on the creation of polythematic terminology. Multilingualism has a vital influence on the creation of polythematic terminology.

15. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200615 5. Harmonisation (cont.) In language planning jargon, harmonisation is used synonymously with unification (Msimang, 1998). In language planning jargon, harmonisation is used synonymously with unification (Msimang, 1998). (Unification) seeks to construct a common language for such a dialect-group by employing as much as possible, forms which are common to all of the variants in the group, and, where this is not possible, by the use of forms common to the predominant majority; or in previously-attained literary forms (Lestrade, 1935) (Unification) seeks to construct a common language for such a dialect-group by employing as much as possible, forms which are common to all of the variants in the group, and, where this is not possible, by the use of forms common to the predominant majority; or in previously-attained literary forms (Lestrade, 1935)

16. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200616 5. Harmonisation (cont.) South Africa has eleven official languages: South Africa has eleven official languages: Afrikaans (af/afr) Afrikaans (af/afr) English (en/eng) English (en/eng) Xitsonga (Tsonga) (tg/xtg) Xitsonga (Tsonga) (tg/xtg) Tshivenda (Venda) (ve/ven) Tshivenda (Venda) (ve/ven) Three Sotho languages Three Sotho languages Setswana (Tswana) (tn/tsn) Setswana (Tswana) (tn/tsn) Sesotho sa Leboa (Northern Sotho) (ns/nso) Sesotho sa Leboa (Northern Sotho) (ns/nso) Sesotho (South Sotho) (st/sot) Sesotho (South Sotho) (st/sot) Four Nguni Languages Four Nguni Languages IsiZulu (Zulu) (zu/zul) IsiZulu (Zulu) (zu/zul) IsiXhosa (Xhosa) (xh/xho) IsiXhosa (Xhosa) (xh/xho) IsiNdebele (South Ndebele) (nd/nde) IsiNdebele (South Ndebele) (nd/nde) Siswati (Swati) (ss/ssw) Siswati (Swati) (ss/ssw) The three Sotho languages are mutually understandable as is the four Nguni languages. The three Sotho languages are mutually understandable as is the four Nguni languages.

17. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200617 5. Harmonisation (cont.) In harmonisation a number of dialects belonging to the same language group are unified so as to produce one common or standard language. In harmonisation a number of dialects belonging to the same language group are unified so as to produce one common or standard language. In this process variant forms between dialects are neutralised or harmonised in the common or standard language (e.g. Ngwato, Ngwaketsi, and Setswana to form Standard Setswana). In this process variant forms between dialects are neutralised or harmonised in the common or standard language (e.g. Ngwato, Ngwaketsi, and Setswana to form Standard Setswana). The phenomenon of harmonisation can also occur between languages (e.g. IsiZulu, IsiXhosa, SiSwati, IsiNdebele). They too could be harmonised to produce one common language (e.g. Standard Nguni). The phenomenon of harmonisation can also occur between languages (e.g. IsiZulu, IsiXhosa, SiSwati, IsiNdebele). They too could be harmonised to produce one common language (e.g. Standard Nguni).

18. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200618 5. Harmonisation (cont.) Nguni and Sotho cultural languages have a sizeable core of common vocabularies. Nguni and Sotho cultural languages have a sizeable core of common vocabularies. It would be ideal if they also had a common pool of technical vocabularies. It would be ideal if they also had a common pool of technical vocabularies. It will then not be necessary to coin a separate term for IsiNdebele, SiSwati, IsiXhosa and IsiZulu (Nguni group) or for Sesotho sa Leboa, Setswana, Sesotho (Sotho group). It will then not be necessary to coin a separate term for IsiNdebele, SiSwati, IsiXhosa and IsiZulu (Nguni group) or for Sesotho sa Leboa, Setswana, Sesotho (Sotho group). A team of terminologists for all the Nguni languages and another team for all the Sotho languages could work together when denoting concepts. A team of terminologists for all the Nguni languages and another team for all the Sotho languages could work together when denoting concepts.

19. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200619 5. Harmonisation (cont.) Terminology can be regarded as an artificial language. Terminology can be regarded as an artificial language. To introduce harmonisation/unification in the terminology process will not be a foreign principle or practice. To introduce harmonisation/unification in the terminology process will not be a foreign principle or practice. Since terminology is mainly interested in written language the principles of harmonisation can be applied here (adhere to spelling and orthography rules of each language). Since terminology is mainly interested in written language the principles of harmonisation can be applied here (adhere to spelling and orthography rules of each language). Terms will be (inter)nationally recognisable – it will consist of the basic stem with language specific adjustments, but with the same or similar phonemic shape. Terms will be (inter)nationally recognisable – it will consist of the basic stem with language specific adjustments, but with the same or similar phonemic shape.

20. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200620 5. Harmonisation (cont.) Harmonisation is closely related to standardisation. Harmonisation is closely related to standardisation. By harmonising or unifying one is actually standardising: By harmonising or unifying one is actually standardising: en law af wettg nawu zuumthethoxh umthethoss umtsetfond umthetho tn molaost molaons molao ve mulayo Standardisation and harmonisation both involve a direct and deliberate intervention by the linguistic society to create a neutral variety. Standardisation and harmonisation both involve a direct and deliberate intervention by the linguistic society to create a neutral variety.

21. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200621 5. Harmonisation (cont.) Harmonisation is a very sensitive issue in the South African context. Harmonisation is a very sensitive issue in the South African context. Linguistic Nguni nationalism will not affect the political status of a distinct Ndebele nation, Swazi nation, Xhosa nation or Zulu nation. As will Sotho nationalism not affect the political status of a distinct South Sotho nation, Northern Sotho nation or Tswana nation. Linguistic Nguni nationalism will not affect the political status of a distinct Ndebele nation, Swazi nation, Xhosa nation or Zulu nation. As will Sotho nationalism not affect the political status of a distinct South Sotho nation, Northern Sotho nation or Tswana nation. Linguistic stakeholders often fail to make a distinction between linguistic nationalism and political nationalism. Linguistic stakeholders often fail to make a distinction between linguistic nationalism and political nationalism.

22. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200622 5. Harmonisation (cont.) With the South African multilingual dispensation the rapid development of the separate Nguni and Sotho languages is such as to make harmonisation no longer possible. With the South African multilingual dispensation the rapid development of the separate Nguni and Sotho languages is such as to make harmonisation no longer possible. The official South African languages are being developed into functional languages in all spheres of human activity. The official South African languages are being developed into functional languages in all spheres of human activity. Terminology development could, however, benefit from harmonisation efforts. Terminology development could, however, benefit from harmonisation efforts.

23. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200623 5.1 Concept harmonisation: Activity aiming at the establishment of a correspondence between two or more closely related or overlapping concepts having professional, technical, scientific, social, economic, linguistic or cultural differences in order to eliminate or reduce differences between them (ISO 1087-1) Activity aiming at the establishment of a correspondence between two or more closely related or overlapping concepts having professional, technical, scientific, social, economic, linguistic or cultural differences in order to eliminate or reduce differences between them (ISO 1087-1) UKprivate schoolpublic school US, ZApublic schoolprivate school en raisin (dried grape) en raisin (dried grape) frraisin (grape) frraisin (grape)

24. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200624 5.2 Concept system harmonisation: Activity aiming at the establishment of a correspondence between two or more closely related or overlapping concept systems having professional, technical, scientific, social, economic, linguistic or cultural differences in order to eliminate or reduce differences between them (ISO 1087-1): Activity aiming at the establishment of a correspondence between two or more closely related or overlapping concept systems having professional, technical, scientific, social, economic, linguistic or cultural differences in order to eliminate or reduce differences between them (ISO 1087-1): en wastewater fr eau usée en wastewater fr eau usée domestic wastewater eau usée domestique domestic wastewater eau usée domestique runoff water eau de ruissellement runoff water eau de ruissellement storm water eau d’orage storm water eau d’orage rainwater eau pluviale rainwater eau pluviale industrial wastewater eau résiduaire industrielle industrial wastewater eau résiduaire industrielle rinsing water eau de rinçage rinsing water eau de rinçage cooling water eau de refroidissement cooling water eau de refroidissement industrial process wastewater eau de fabrication industrial process wastewater eau de fabrication

25. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200625 5.3 Term harmonisation: activity leading to activity leading to the designation of one concept in different languages by terms that reflect the same or similar characteristics or have slightly different forms the designation of one concept in different languages by terms that reflect the same or similar characteristics or have slightly different forms en ecologyaf ekologiedeOekologie frécologioitécologianlecologie or the establishment of the equivalence between two or more terms or the establishment of synonymy and term variation within a language (ISO 1087-1) or the establishment of the equivalence between two or more terms or the establishment of synonymy and term variation within a language (ISO 1087-1)

26. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200626 Correspondence between terms in one language: Synonyms: Synonyms: amplitude reflection factor / voltage reflection coefficient amplitude reflection factor / voltage reflection coefficient beeldradio / televisie beeldradio / televisie Geographical variants: Geographical variants: UK lift / US elevator UK lift / US elevator UK pavement / US sidewalk UK pavement / US sidewalk UK industrialised country / US industrialized country UK industrialised country / US industrialized country Register (variants of different language level): Register (variants of different language level): myocardial infarction / heart attack myocardial infarction / heart attack uterus / womb uterus / womb

27. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200627 5.4 Equivalence (ISO 1087-1: 2000 3.4.21) Relation between designations in different languages representing the same concept: enhorse enhorse dePferd dePferd nl paard nl paard af perd af perd frcheval frcheval es caballo es caballo en philosophy frphilosophie esfilosofia af filosofie

28. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200628 The terminologies of the official languages should be developed to enhance the multilingual heritage of a country. The terminologies of the official languages should be developed to enhance the multilingual heritage of a country. When there are too many languages this might not be practical and economically viable. When there are too many languages this might not be practical and economically viable. In such a situation harmonisation could be beneficial to terminology. In such a situation harmonisation could be beneficial to terminology. The principles and practice of the harmonisation of terminologies should, however, be studied and applied carefully. The principles and practice of the harmonisation of terminologies should, however, be studied and applied carefully.

29. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200629 To me harmonisation seems to be a natural process – it should not be enforced. To me harmonisation seems to be a natural process – it should not be enforced. Language planners should make linguists aware of a phenomenon such as harmonisation/unification. Language planners should make linguists aware of a phenomenon such as harmonisation/unification. They could advocate the advantages or disadvantages of such a phenomenon. They could advocate the advantages or disadvantages of such a phenomenon. The test of harmonisation, however, lies with the language users. The test of harmonisation, however, lies with the language users.

30. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200630 On the one hand you have an awakening of linguistic nationalism – renewed pride, dignity and appreciation of the mother-tongue (first language). On the one hand you have an awakening of linguistic nationalism – renewed pride, dignity and appreciation of the mother-tongue (first language). On the other hand there is a disquieting movement towards the eradication of linguistic differences since they enshrine ethnicity which could be regarded as a stumbling block in the way of nation building (Louwrens 1996). On the other hand there is a disquieting movement towards the eradication of linguistic differences since they enshrine ethnicity which could be regarded as a stumbling block in the way of nation building (Louwrens 1996). The terminologist cannot turn a blind eye to these developments, since whatever course the future is going to take, it will directly affect the work of the terminologist. The terminologist cannot turn a blind eye to these developments, since whatever course the future is going to take, it will directly affect the work of the terminologist.

31. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200631 Irrespective of how well trained and resourceful terminologists may be, and irrespective of how elegant and sophisticated the set of terms they create, large scale term creation will remain a wasteful endeavour unless the end-product is going to be appreciated and utilised fully by the subject specialists and language practitioners – the end-users. Irrespective of how well trained and resourceful terminologists may be, and irrespective of how elegant and sophisticated the set of terms they create, large scale term creation will remain a wasteful endeavour unless the end-product is going to be appreciated and utilised fully by the subject specialists and language practitioners – the end-users. Appreciation for terminology should emanate from the language users themselves, since one can never succeed by forcing terminology, a language or language variety onto its speakers. Appreciation for terminology should emanate from the language users themselves, since one can never succeed by forcing terminology, a language or language variety onto its speakers.

32. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200632 Harmonisation or unification means various things to various people, i.e.: the merging of a number of dialects to form a single common language; the merging of a number of dialects to form a single common language; the merging of a number of languages belonging to the same group to form one standard variety; the merging of a number of languages belonging to the same group to form one standard variety; harmonising only spelling and orthographies; harmonising only spelling and orthographies; harmonising scientific and technical terms (language for special purposes). harmonising scientific and technical terms (language for special purposes). The latter is the most desirable and achievable possibility.

33. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200633 6. Socioterminology: taboos The Afrikaans language creates typical Germanic terms or uses the principles of transliteration to coin new terms. The Afrikaans language creates typical Germanic terms or uses the principles of transliteration to coin new terms. The Afrikaans languages does not make use of euphemisms for sensitive concepts but will also not use offensive terms in subject related matter. The Afrikaans languages does not make use of euphemisms for sensitive concepts but will also not use offensive terms in subject related matter. In Afrikaans the Latin forms are being introduced as term equivalents (i.e. medical field). In Afrikaans the Latin forms are being introduced as term equivalents (i.e. medical field).

34. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200634 6. Socioterminology (cont.) The African languages prefer using euphemisms rather than coining transliterated terms. The African languages prefer using euphemisms rather than coining transliterated terms. Sensitivity is experienced regarding cultural habits, taboos and the so-called women’s language. Sensitivity is experienced regarding cultural habits, taboos and the so-called women’s language. The term hlonipa is used in the Nguni languages and the term tlotta in the Sotho languages to indicate respectful language usage. The term hlonipa is used in the Nguni languages and the term tlotta in the Sotho languages to indicate respectful language usage.

35. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200635 6. Socioterminology (cont.) Term creators should be very careful not to offend target users when dealing with culturally sensitive terms: Term creators should be very careful not to offend target users when dealing with culturally sensitive terms: Taboo terms: e.g. bodily parts (anus, penis), bodily functions (menstruation), bodily actions (anal sex, oral sex, circumcise, masturbation), bodily fluid (semen, faeces/excrement) etc. are regarded as culturally sensitive and should be treated with respect when added in a terminology list Taboo terms: e.g. bodily parts (anus, penis), bodily functions (menstruation), bodily actions (anal sex, oral sex, circumcise, masturbation), bodily fluid (semen, faeces/excrement) etc. are regarded as culturally sensitive and should be treated with respect when added in a terminology list Cultural sensitivity: traditional healer (person who uses traditional methods to treat sick people) NOT witch doctor, sorcerer Cultural sensitivity: traditional healer (person who uses traditional methods to treat sick people) NOT witch doctor, sorcerer

36. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200636 6. Socioterminology (cont.) Euphemisms: usage thereof is culturally acceptable: Euphemisms: usage thereof is culturally acceptable: male condom: raincoat, sheath, French letter, sock; Setswana: sekausu male condom: raincoat, sheath, French letter, sock; Setswana: sekausu prostitute: commercial sex worker prostitute: commercial sex worker mistress: roll on; Northern Sotho: tyatsi mistress: roll on; Northern Sotho: tyatsi large penis: forearm; Northern Sotho: tsogo la ngwana large penis: forearm; Northern Sotho: tsogo la ngwana Idioms: Idioms: he was killed by sweet potato: he was killed by sex he was killed by sweet potato: he was killed by sex

37. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200637 Labels: The usage of labels assist the user when dealing with sensitive terms: Labels: The usage of labels assist the user when dealing with sensitive terms: English: penis English: penis IsiNdebele: ipipi (vulgar); umphambili (euphemism) IsiNdebele: ipipi (vulgar); umphambili (euphemism) Sesotho: ntoto (offensive) Sesotho: ntoto (offensive) Xitsonga: xirho xa mbeleko xa xinuna (euphemism) Xitsonga: xirho xa mbeleko xa xinuna (euphemism) English:vagina English:vagina Afrikaans:vagina Afrikaans:vagina IsiNdebele:isifazi (euphemism) IsiNdebele:isifazi (euphemism) Sesotho:nnyo (taboo), setho sa bosadi (euphemism) Sesotho:nnyo (taboo), setho sa bosadi (euphemism) Tshivenda:nnyo Tshivenda:nnyo Xitsonga:xirho xa mbeleko xa xisati (euphemism), hlunu (taboo) Xitsonga:xirho xa mbeleko xa xisati (euphemism), hlunu (taboo) NOTE: What is regarded as offensive in Sesotho is not regarded as such in Tshivenda NOTE: What is regarded as offensive in Sesotho is not regarded as such in Tshivenda

38. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200638 6. Socioterminology (Cont.) Referral and cross referencing: User problems are minimised by cross referencing from a foreign, unknown or unfavourable term to a known or more acceptable term: Referral and cross referencing: User problems are minimised by cross referencing from a foreign, unknown or unfavourable term to a known or more acceptable term: faecesexcrement; faecesstool faecesexcrement; faecesstool pyrexia fever pyrexia fever Usage of common words in a technical dictionary: assistance is given to the general user: Usage of common words in a technical dictionary: assistance is given to the general user: vomit (heave); womb (uterus) vomit (heave); womb (uterus)

39. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200639 7.Conclusion Standardisation comprises a whole world of activities in various spheres of life which helps creating benefits and sustainability for everyone in the global society. Standardisation comprises a whole world of activities in various spheres of life which helps creating benefits and sustainability for everyone in the global society. The issue of standardisation of African languages over the whole African continent has been the central quest for the development of these languages as modern vehicles of science, technology, education, administration and literacy expansion. The issue of standardisation of African languages over the whole African continent has been the central quest for the development of these languages as modern vehicles of science, technology, education, administration and literacy expansion.

40. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200640 The languages which have been selected as standards have already been committed to writing. There is an urgent need for modernisation and spelling and orthography reform. The languages which have been selected as standards have already been committed to writing. There is an urgent need for modernisation and spelling and orthography reform. Terminologies should be standardised and harmonised. Terminologies should be standardised and harmonised. The problem associated with taboo or sensitive terms could be solved by using transliterations or euphemisms. What is regarded as offensive in one language may be a term commonly used in another culture. The problem associated with taboo or sensitive terms could be solved by using transliterations or euphemisms. What is regarded as offensive in one language may be a term commonly used in another culture. The compiler of a term list should, however, be careful not to offend users by careless terminography. The compiler of a term list should, however, be careful not to offend users by careless terminography.

41. Mariëtta Alberts, TSTT, Beijing, 200641 Thank you! Dr Mariëtta Alberts PanSALB Private Bag X08 ARCADIA 0007 South Africa marietta@pansalb.org.za Tel:+27 (0)12 341 9638 Fax:+27 (0)12 341 5938