1. CSIT 301 (Blum)1 Software Based in part on material from Chapters 4 & 5 in Computer Architecture by Nicholas Carter

2. CSIT 301 (Blum)2 Moving up one level Micro-code rarely changes thus it is written in (“burned into”) read-only memory (ROM). By the true meaning of the terms, ROM is RAM, by which I mean that a particular “word” in ROM is accessed using an address and does not require progressing through previous locations. Thus we can access the micro-code by supplying its address. Effectively, the addresses of the micro- code is the next level of programming: machine code.

3. CSIT 301 (Blum)3 Machine code In a machine-code program, one tells the computer to execute the micro-code found at Control-ROM Address1, then execute the micro-code found at Control-ROM Address2, etc. The program looks something like –Address1 –Address2 except that the addresses are in binary (1’s and 0’s). So it might look like –00101001 –00011010

4. CSIT 301 (Blum)4 Machine code is software Micro-code is often referred to as firmware to indicate that it is the transition between hardware and software, that it is written in ROM and not changed very readily. Machine code is placed in RAM, which is easily rewritten. Thus it is soft-ware.

5. CSIT 301 (Blum)5 Ground floor for software Machine code is the lowest level of software. It is the only level of software capable of communicating with the hardware (via the firmware). Thus all software must be put into machine language form before it can be executed.

6. CSIT 301 (Blum)6 What makes software soft? Part of the flexibility of software is that the set of instructions can be rearranged, leading to a different program. Another part of the flexibility is the inclusion of data with the instructions. –A machine level instruction may be to move the value stored at a certain memory location to a register (e.g. Accumulator A). – Part of the instruction is data, the memory location, which can be changed to yield different results. –Also the data at the memory location can be changed to yield different results.

7. CSIT 301 (Blum)7 Operator/Operand So a software instruction can specify an action and data to be acted upon. –We use the term operator (also op-code) to refer to the action. –We use the term operand to refer to the data. So if we instruct the computer to copy the value from memory location 35 to accumulator A, then –Copying a value from memory to Acc. A is the operator –Location 35 is the operand

8. CSIT 301 (Blum)8 Instruction set So a programmer can modify the order of instructions and the data portion (operands) of those instructions, but what is fixed is the set of allowable instructions, known as the instruction set. The instruction set is an important characteristic of the processor, what instructions and how many are allowed.

9. CSIT 301 (Blum)9 Instruction-Set Size Issue Often one can realize a complicated instruction by using simple instructions, but then one must execute several instructions instead of just one. –The burden is taken off the hardware and put on the software. So an issue in processor design is whether one should have a smaller collection of simpler, faster instructions or whether one should support a larger collection of more complex instructions. If the more complex instructions are rarely used, it may be better to leave them out – provided their effect can obtained using a combination of other instructions.

10. CSIT 301 (Blum)10 RISC/CISC Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) use processors that limit the number of instructions with the idea that the supported instructions will be simpler and faster. –A simpler instruction set also means less circuitry, fewer transistors and thus cheaper processors. To distinguish conventionally designed from RISC machines, the term Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) was introduced. Ideas from both camps have merged, so now it is hard to distinguish RISC from CISC.

11. CSIT 301 (Blum)11 RISCs in Parallel RISC processors are coming around again but this time in parallel. The simpler RISC processor requires fewer transistors and takes up less space. Thus, one can place two or more of them on a single chip. Multicore.

12. CSIT 301 (Blum)12 Stored program as data At the machine language level, one is writing software by entering strings of 1’s and 0’s. This is tedious and error prone. In the stored program concept, the instructions and the data are placed together in memory. It is then possible to treat the program as data – either of a different program or indeed of the same program. –The latter case is known as self-modifying code.

13. CSIT 301 (Blum)13 Assembly: one small step … Instead of coding in machine language’s binary strings, people introduced mnemonics for the instructions. –For example, LDA 35 instead of something like 00101001 00100011. Then there was another program that treated the mnemonic code as data and created from it the corresponding machine code. The program is called an assembler and the mnemonic code is called assembly.

14. CSIT 301 (Blum)14 One-to-one There is essentially a one-to-one correspondence between assembly code and machine code. The assembler code corresponds to a look-up table. –It looks up the assembly code and outputs the corresponding machine code. –It can also do some checking. If the code submitted is not proper assembly code, …

15. CSIT 301 (Blum)15 Hardware Aware The assembly programmer has to have knowledge of the computer’s architecture –What registers there are –What actions are allowed on those registers –Etc. If the hardware changes, the assembly program may no longer be any good.

16. CSIT 301 (Blum)16 Backward Compatibility So as to not render customer’s software completely useless, processor designers take backward compatibility into consideration. A computer is called “backward compatible” if it can run the same software as the previous model of the computer. –The reverse is not necessarily true – for software written based on the new hardware. A manufacturer will try to make a series or family of processors backward compatible provided it doesn’t stand in the way of progress. Sometimes the computer has a special mode for running old programs.

17. CSIT 301 (Blum)17 Intel Intel introduced the first microprocessor (the CPU on a single chip) – the 4004 designed in conjunction with the Japanese firm Busicom for use in a calculator. They followed this with the 4040, 8008, 8080, 8086, 8088, and the 80286. At this stage, people drop the 80 at the beginning, giving the 286, 386, 486. Because a company cannot trademark a number, they stopped using this naming scheme, so instead of 586, we got the Pentium.

18. CSIT 301 (Blum)18 Intel Intel, founded in 1968 by Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore is the world's largest manufacturer of computer chips. It has been challenged by AMD – Advanced Micro Devices (especially since they broke the GHz barrier first) – and Cyrix (now part of VIA). Nearly all PCs are based on Intel's x86 architecture, in fact that’s how some people define the term PC. And now Intel chips are used in MACs.

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20. CSIT 301 (Blum)20 Speaking of Gordon Moore Moore observed an exponential growth (effectively doubling every couple years) in the number of transistors per integrated circuit and predicted that this trend would continue. This is known as Moore’s Law. There are similar predictions about memory, price, etc.

21. CSIT 301 (Blum)21 Year of introduction Transistors 400419712,250 800819722,500 808019745,000 8086197829,000 2861982120,000 386™ processor1985275,000 486™ DX processor19891,180,000 Pentium® processor 19933,100,000 Pentium II processor 19977,500,000 Pentium III processor 199924,000,000 Pentium 4 processor 200042,000,000

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25. CSIT 301 (Blum)25 Portability In addition to making hardware backward compatible, we have also made software portable. In describing software, “portable” means that the software can be run on a variety of computers. Another term used is independence, in this case machine or hardware independence. Assembly’s use of specifics of the registers makes it machine dependent. One has to program at a higher level to gain machine independence. Of course, someone must deal with the specifics of the hardware but it doesn’t have to be you (Layering).

26. CSIT 301 (Blum)26 High-level language Languages which are above assembly language, known as high-level languages, hide the details of the hardware and thus are portable or hardware independent. Of course, high-level language are not directly executed. There is an in-between process or processes (compiling, translating, interpreting, linking, etc.) necessary before they can be executed.

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28. CSIT 301 (Blum)28 Generations Another way of discussing this is to talk about generations. 1GL or first-generation language is machine language. 2GL or second-generation language is assembly. 3GL or third-generation language is a "high- level" programming language, Fortran, C, Java, Visual Basic, etc. 4GL or fourth-generation language is a more descriptive language, closer to human language usually used to query databases.

29. CSIT 301 (Blum)29 5 th Generation Language

30. CSIT 301 (Blum)30 Instruction Set One aspect of processor design is to determine what instructions will be supported. There must be rules (syntax) for how instructions are expressed, so that the code can be parsed, one instruction distinguished from the next, the data (operand) separated from the action (operator).

31. CSIT 301 (Blum)31 Number of operands An example of syntax would be whether an operator is binary or unary Binary operators take two operands –e.g. the Boolean operator AND –(x<y) AND (i=j) Unary operators take one operand –E.g. the Boolean operator NOT –NOT(x<y) Some ops are context dependent –- 5 (unary) versus 4-5 (binary)

32. CSIT 301 (Blum)32 Operation versus Instruction An operation such as addition, which is binary (takes two operands), can be coded using instructions that are unary (one operand) if there is a default location implied such as Accumulator A. 5 + 6 becomes –Load 5 (places data in acc. A) –Add 6 (adds number in Acc. A to new number)

33. CSIT 301 (Blum)33 Where does the answer go? Whether it’s 5 + 6 or (Load 5, Add 6), there’s the question of what to do with the result. We can again use the default location of Accumulator A to place the answer in, or we can include a third operand that indicates where the result should be placed.

34. CSIT 301 (Blum)34 Store Placing the result of an operation in memory is known as storing it. Thus with unary instructions, we would have –Load 5 –Add 6 –Store 7 The operand of the store is an address indicating where to store the answer, which is held in Accumulator A. Or one might have just one instruction with three operands –Add 7, 5, 6

35. CSIT 301 (Blum)35 Addressing Modes The “7” in the previous example was clearly an address. But this raises the question as to what were the operands in the two previous instructions (Load and Add). For those instructions, the operand might have been the actual numbers one wanted added or the addresses of numbers one wanted added.

36. CSIT 301 (Blum)36 More than one kind of add By “Add” one typically means the latter case on the previous slide. The operand is not the number to be added but the address of the number to be added. –(Think variables.) A designer can include a distinct add instruction, Add Immediate, in which the operand is the actual number to be added.

37. CSIT 301 (Blum)37 Add Indirect In another version of addition, the operand is an address, and the data at that address is also an address, and the actual number to be added is located at the second address.

38. CSIT 301 (Blum)38 A short program AddressValue 0LOAD 4 1ADD INDIRECT 5 2ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3STOP 45 56 67 78 Acc. A: XXX The arrow indicates the program counter, we assume it has not executed the statement it points to.

39. CSIT 301 (Blum)39 A short program AddressValue 0LOAD 4 1ADD INDIRECT 5 2ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3STOP 45 56 67 78 Acc. A: 5 The Load 4 instruction has been executed. The value at location 4 (which is a 5) has been loaded into the accumulator.

40. CSIT 301 (Blum)40 A short program AddressValue 0LOAD 4 1ADD INDIRECT 5 2ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3STOP 45 56 67 78 Acc. A: 12 The Add Indirect 5 instruction has been executed. One goes to location 5 to find a value of 6. That 6 is an address, thus one goes to location 6 to find a value of 7 and that is added to the 5 waiting in the accumulator. The result of 12 is placed in the accumulator.

41. CSIT 301 (Blum)41 A short program AddressValue 0LOAD 4 1ADD INDIRECT 5 2ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3STOP 45 56 67 78 Acc. A: 18 The Add Immediate 6 instruction has been executed. The value 6 is data which is added to the 12 waiting in the accumulator. The result of 18 is placed in the accumulator.

42. CSIT 301 (Blum)42 The Stop Instruction Recall that in what is actually executed (machine code, not assembly) the instructions themselves are numbers. Thus it is crucial to know within a single instruction which numbers correspond to an operation and which numbers are operands. Similarly on the level of the program itself, the processor needs to know where the program ends as there may be data stored after it. In a machine with an operating system, it is more a notion of returning (control) than of stopping or halting.

43. CSIT 301 (Blum)43 Recap so far So there were issues about the number of operands. –Recall that we have a fetch-execute cycle – first an instruction is retrieved from memory and then acted upon. –With unary instructions adding two numbers and storing the result required three instructions, that’s three fetches and three executions. –With ternary instructions it can be done with one instruction, one fetch and one execute. The execution is now more complicated but we have saved time on fetches.

44. CSIT 301 (Blum)44 Recap so far (Cont.) More operators means more complicated circuitry, the load and store aspects of the instruction would have to built into each separate instruction. There is a speed versus complexity issue. And complexity also brings the issue of cost along with it.

45. CSIT 301 (Blum)45 Recap so far (Cont.) After determining the number of operands, came the issue of what the operands mean. –Are they data, addresses of data, or addresses of addresses of data? Either we can decide to support all of these types of instructions (addressing modes) and choose complexity. Or we can choose to support only some of them and sacrifice efficiency. –You can eliminate Add Immediate if you always store the values you want to add.

46. CSIT 301 (Blum)46 Data Types Apart from addressing, another issue is the type of data the operation is acting on. –The process for adding integers is different from the process for adding floating point numbers. –So one may have separate ADD and FADD for the addition of integers and floats respectively. –Furthermore, one may need to add instructions to convert from one type to another. To add an integer to a float, convert the integer to a float and then add the floats.

47. CSIT 301 (Blum)47 References Computer Architecture, Nicholas Carter Digital Computer Electronics, Albert P. Malvino and Jerald A. Brown http://www.webopedia.com http://www.intel.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore's_law