1. Defense against Infectious Disease Crash Course video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CeVtPDjJBPU

2. IB Assessment Statement Define pathogen. Pathogen: an organism or virus that causes a disease.

3. Key Concepts Pathogen – an organism or virus that causes diseases – Bacteria (strep throat, staph infections, pneumonia) – Protists (malaria, amoebic dysentery) – Virus (common cold, flu, herpes, AIDS) – Fungus (athletes foot, yeast infections) – Flat worms, round worms Host – the organism that is being attacked or invade by pathogen.

10. Prokaryotes Assessment Statement 2.2.1 Draw, label and snnotate a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote. The diagram should show the cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, pili, flagella, ribosomes and nucleoid (region containing naked DNA).

11. Annotate: Label & Function

12. IB Learning Objective Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses.

14. What do antibiotics do? Antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses. – Antibiotics block specific metabolic pathways found in bacteria. – Viruses reproduce using the host cell’s metabolic pathways, which are NOT affected by antibiotics.

16. Bacteria vs. Virus Bacteria Are considered living organisms Unicellular Reproduce on their own Need energy, and a metabolism Have cell walls Virus Are NOT considered living NOT made of cells CanNOT reproduce on their own Do NOT need energy, and so no metabolism. Do NOT have a CELL WALL

17. Antiobiotics Antibiotics are naturally occurring substances obtained from fungus or bacteria. There are over 4000 different antibiotics, but only 50 have proved to be safe.

18. How exactly do antibiotics work? Antibiotics are extremely effective at disrupting bacterial metabolism. Specifically antibiotics inhibit the formation of a new cell wall during cell division.

23. Learning Objective Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens.

24. Immunity Immunity is a resistance to an infection. There are two types of immunities: 1.Innate Immunity 2.Acquired Immunity

26. External Defenses –First Line of Defence Skin and mucous membranes are physical barriers to entry of microorganisms and viruses Mucous membrane cells produce mucus, a viscous fluid that traps microbes and other particles In the trachea, ciliated epithelial cells sweep mucus and any entrapped microbes upward, preventing microbes from entering the lungs

27. LE 43-3 10 µm

28. Secretions of the skin and mucous membranes provide an environment hostile to microbes – Secretions give the skin a pH between 3 and 5, acidic enough to prevent colonization of many microbes – Skin secretions include proteins such as lysozyme, which digests bacterial cell walls Stomach has a pH of 3 which can kill most microbes.

29. IB LEARNING OBJECTIVE Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissues.

31. Internal Immunity --Key Concepts Phagocytes – leukocytes (white blood cells) that circulate the blood identify pathogens and ingest (eat) them.

33. Innate Internal Immunity Macrophages, a type of phagocyte, migrate through the body and are found in organs of the lymphatic system – The lymphatic system defends against pathogens

34. Parts of the Lymphatic System Adenoid Tonsil Lymph nodes Peyer’s patches (small intestine) Spleen Appendix Lymphatic vessels Lymph node Masses of lymphocytes and macrophages Lymphatic vessel Blood capillary Tissue cells Lymphatic capillary Interstitial fluid

35. Innate Internal Immunity Phagocytic Cells Phagocytes attach to prey via surface receptors and engulf them, forming a vacuole that fuses with a lysosome

36. LE 43-4 Pseudopodia Microbes MACROPHAGE Lysosome containing enzymes Vacuole http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=7VQU28itVVw http://www.youtube.com /watch?v=aWItglvTiLc&N R=1

37. Phagocytosis Tutorial http://www.microbelibrary.org/images/tterry/ anim/phago053.html http://www.microbelibrary.org/images/tterry/ anim/phago053.html

38. Innate Internal Immunity Antimicrobial Proteins Proteins function in innate defense by attacking microbes directly or impeding their reproduction About 30 proteins make up the complement system, which causes lysis of invading cells and helps trigger inflammation Interferons provide innate defense against viruses and help activate macrophages

39. Innate Internal Immunity Inflammatory Response In local inflammation, histamine and other chemicals released from injured cells promote changes in blood vessels These changes allow more fluid, phagocytes, and antimicrobial proteins to enter tissues

40. LE 43-6 Pathogen Pin Chemical signals Capillary Phagocytic cells Macrophage Red blood cell Blood clotting elements Blood clot Phagocytosis

41. Acquired Immunity Immunity is based on the body to recognize ‘self’ and to distinguish ‘self’ from ‘non-self’ Antigen- Any ‘non-self’, foreign substance in the body. – Anything that causes a disease is an antigen

42. Lymphocytes Lymphocytes: Are specialized cells with the ability to recognize antigens and take steps to remove them from the body. – If a lymphocyte detects an antigen in the body it will divide and produce clones of itself rapidly. – Some cloned lymphocytes will secrete proteins called Antibodies.

43. IB LEARNING OBJECTIVE Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.

45. 6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.(2) Antigen is often used to describe something that has infected the body. However it is more accurate to describe them as follows: An antigen is a large molecule (protein, glycoprotein, lipoprotein or polysaccharide) on the outer surface of a cell. All living cells have these antigens as part of their cell membrane or cell wall. The capsid proteins of viruses and even individual protein molecules can also be classed as antigens. Their purpose is for cell communication, and cells from different individuals have different antigens, while all the cells of the same individual have the same antigens. Antigens are genetically controlled, so close relative have more similar antigens than unrelated individuals. Blood groups are an example of antigens on red blood cells, but all cells have them. The link with infection is that when a pathogen or toxin enters the body it this that the immune system reacts against.

46. 6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.(2) Antibodies are proteins secreted from lymphocytes that destroy pathogen and antigen infections B-cells make antibodies. An antibody (also called an immunoglobulin) is a protein molecule that can bind specifically to an antigen. Antibodies all have a similar structure composed of 4 polypeptide chains (2 heavy chains and 2 light chains) joined together by strong disulphide bonds to form a Y-shaped structure. The stem of the Y is called the constant region because in all immunoglobulin's it has the same amino acid sequence, and therefore same structure. The ends of the arms of the Y are called the variable regions of the molecule because different immunoglobulin molecules have different amino acid structure and therefore different structures. These variable regions are where the antigens bind to form a highly specific antigen-antibody complex, much like an enzyme-substrate complex.

47. 6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.(2) Each B-cell has around 10 5 membrane-bound antibody molecules on its surface and can also secrete soluble antibodies into its surroundings. Every human has around 10 8 different types of B cell, each making antibodies with slightly different variable regions. Between them, these antibodies can therefore bind specifically to 10 8 different antigens, so there will be an antibody to match almost every conceivable antigen that might enter the body.

48. ANTIBODIES Antibody is a specialized protein that binds with antigens. – It is Y-shaped – it contains an amino acid sequence that binds with the antigen, called an antigen binding site – There are millions of different types of antibodies

49. Antibody Structure Antigen-binding sites Antigen Antibody

50. IB LEARNING OBJECTIVE Explain antibody production

51. Lymphocytes & Antibody There are millions of difference lymphocyte cells. Each lymphocyte recognizes one specific antigen Each lymphocyte secrete a specific antibody to combat a specific antigen. Every antigen that our body has been exposed to has a unique lymphocyte.

52. Memory Cells Once an antigen is destroyed the corresponding lymphocyte cell gets destroyed too. But ‘knowledge’ of this antigen is stored in memory cells that are stored in our lymph nodes.

53. Memory Cells If we are reinvaded by the same antigen our body can responding rapidly, using those memory cells. If we are re-invaded by the same antigen we can easily destroy that antigen, we say we have an immunity to that antigen.

54. Memory cell Antigen Antigen binding to lymphocyte Lymphocyte Plasma cell Production of many more cells and antibodies Second exposure to same antigen Production of memory cells

55. Antigen Antigen binding to lymphocyte Lymphocyte Plasma cell Memory B cell Lymphocytes grow and divide rapidly

56. Antigen Antigen binding to lymphocyte Lymphocyte Plasma cell Some lymphocyte cells develop into plasma cells. Plasma cells produce antibodies that are released into the bloodstream.

57. Antigen Antigen binding to lymphocyte Lymphocyte cell Memory cell Some lymphocyte cells develop into memory cells.

58. Production of many more cells and antibodies Second exposure to same antigen Production of memory cells

59. Antibody Production (a) There are many different lymphocytes. (b) The antigen infects and is presented to the lymphocytes (c) The lymphocyte with a surface epitope complementary to the antigen is selected. (d) The Lymphocyte clones to produce many plasma cells. This occurs in the lymph nodes. (e) The clone of plasma cells (f) The gene for the antibody is expressed and secreted into the plasma and tissue fluid. (g) The antibody circulated in body fluids destroying the infectious antigen

60. How do Antibodies KILL? Antibodies destroy antigens in different ways: – Antigens that are toxins can be inactivated by a reaction with the antibodies – Antibodies can attach to antigens and make sure that a phagocytic cell will recognize it. – Antibodies can kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls….and cause the bacteria to lysis.

63. Practice Question Which of the following best describes antibodies? A.Made by phagocytes and specific to one antigen B.Made by lymphocytes and specific to one antigen C.Made by leucocytes and non-specific D.Made by phagocytes and non-specific

64. Immune Response Animaton… http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation__the_immune_response.ht ml http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation__the_immune_response.ht ml http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation__ige_mediated__type_1__ hypersensitivity__quiz_1_.html http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation__ige_mediated__type_1__ hypersensitivity__quiz_1_.html http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation__antigenic_determinants__ epitopes_.html http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation__antigenic_determinants__ epitopes_.html http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/immunology/Flash/Bcellmat.html

65. Types of Immunity InnateImmunity Rapid responses to a broad range of microbes: Two Types: 1.Internal Phagocytic cells Antimicrobial proteins Inflammatory response 2.External Skin Mucous membranes secretions Acquired Immunity Slower responses to specific microbes – Humoral response (antibodies) – Cell mediated responses (cytotoxic lymphocytes).

66. Learning Objective Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system. Below is some great information about HIV Virus: http://www.avert.org/hiv-structure-and-life- cycle.htm

67. Human Immunodefiency Virus (HIV) HIV – First Identify in 1983 – HIV is a tiny Virus that consists of: 2 single strands of RNA Few enzymes all enclosed in a protein coat.

68. Human Immunodefiency Virus (HIV) HIV Enzymes – Reverse Transcriptase – Synthesizes DNA from RNA – protease - When viral RNA is translated into a polypeptide sequence, that sequence is assembled in a long chain that includes several individual proteins (reverse transcriptase, protease, integrase). Before these enzymes become functional, they must be cut from the longer polypeptide chain. Viral protease cuts the long chain into its individual enzyme components which then facilitate the production of new viruses. – Integrase – integrate viral DNA into host DNA

70. HIV is a retrovirus A retrovirus because it contains RNA NOT DNA. Retrovirus mutate (so EVOLVE) rapidly, this is the reason it is so difficult to find a cure. The flu is a retrovirus…this is why you need a new vaccine every year.

71. VIRUS are not considered Alive Virus are not considered alive b/c – The must use a HOST CELL’s DNA & enzymes to replicate and reproduce – The do not need energy – They are not made of cells.

72. HIV uses Lymphocytes. HIV uses Lymphocytes to reproduce. – The lymphocyte attacked by HIV is called T-cells or T lymphocytes. – The virus eventually destroys the T-cells that it is using to replicate itself. – Thus a person with HIV has a lower than normal amount of T-cells. – T-cells are immune cells that help us fight disease thus when are T-cells are low we can get sick frequently.

73. Importance of Helper T-cells in the immune system http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072 507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation_ _t-cell_dependent_antigens__quiz_1_.html http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072 507470/student_view0/chapter22/animation_ _t-cell_dependent_antigens__quiz_1_.html

74. HIV INFECTION OF A T-CELL 1.Virus enters the blood. 2.Virus bonds and fuses with T-cell 3.Virus enters the cytoplasm of host cell via endocytosis 4.In the cytoplasm of the T-cell, Viral RNA is changed to Viral DNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase 5.New viral DNA moves into the nucleus of t- cell

75. HIV INFECTION OF A T-CELL 6.Once inside the T-cell’s Nucleus viral DNA is integrate into the T-cell’s DNA. 7.Virus DNA can remain in T-cell’s DNA for years. This would be harmless to the T-cell, and we call this latent.

76. HIV INFECTION OF A T-CELL 8.Onset of AIDS occurs when the viral DNA becomes active. 9.The virus reproduces rapidly inside the T-cell then buds off (exocytosis) and infects more T-cells 10.When enough T-cells are damaged a person has a severely compromised immune system.

77. HIV INFECTION of A T-Cell

78. 6.3.7 Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.(2) HIV is a virus that selectively infects Lymphocytes (a) Different lymphocytes (b) HIV virus (c) Infection as the virus attaches then enters the host lymphocyte. (d) The infected lymphocyte is 'disabled' by the virus (e) When an antigen infection is presented the lymphocyte cannot produce antibodies. (f) The antigen is not challenged by the immune system and is able to freely proliferate The consequence is that the infected individual will have no immune and develop that disease. Therefore an individual who is HIV +ve (infected ) will eventually develop a disease which will go unchecked. The consequence is that that disease will severely damage the infected person and will eventually bring about their death

79. HIV Animations http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/ani mations/content/lifecyclehiv.html http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/ani mations/content/lifecyclehiv.html – http://www.aegis.com/topics/virus/ http://www.aegis.com/topics/virus/ – http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapte r22/animation__hiv_replication.html http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapte r22/animation__hiv_replication.html – http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapte r22/animation__how_the_hiv_infection_cycle_wo rks.html http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapte r22/animation__how_the_hiv_infection_cycle_wo rks.html

80. IB Assessment Statement Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS.

82. 6.3.8 Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS.(3) Social Implications: Aids takes an economic and social toll by Belinda Beresford Africa Recovery June 2001 AIDS: Acquired Immuno deficiency syndrome. Acquired relates the infectious nature of AIDS through the transmission of the HIV virus. Immuno deficient relates to the way diseases cannot be resisted. Syndrome relates to the variation in the way the disease manifest itself. People who develop AIDS can be a affected by quite different set of diseases. Cause: is the HIV retro-virus that selectively infects cells of the immune system effectively disabling primary and secondary response to infection. Transmission: Through contact with the body fluids of an infected person. In particular the fluids are blood and semen, vaginal mucus. There is a very low risk ( almost zero) associated with salivary mucus.

83. TED TALKS ON AIDS http://www.ted.com/talks/hans_rosling_the_t ruth_about_hiv