1. Organizing the Perceptual World – Module 13 Intro Psych Mar 8-10, 2010 Class #20-21

2. Gestalt Psychology Based on the assumption that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts…  Basic principles: Figure-Ground Processing  In a noisy environment, we pick out features that are important (stands out from the rest) this is the figure  The ground is the less relevant stuff

3. Figure and Ground

4. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Grouping Having discriminated figure from ground, we then try to organize the figure into a meaningful form Our minds seem to follow certain rules for grouping stimuli together Several rules of perceptual organization identified by Gestalt psychologists illustrate their idea that the perceived whole is different from the mere sum of its parts

5. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Grouping Proximity  If figures are near each other we tend to group them together Similarity  If figures are similar to each other we tend to group them together Continuity  We tend to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones Closure  When a familiar figure is interrupted we imagine the rest of the figure (we finish the picture)

6. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Grouping Texture  When basic stimuli have the same texture people tend to group them together Simplicity  People tend to group features of a stimulus in a way that provides the simplest interpretation of the world Common Region  Elements located within some boundary tend to be grouped together

8. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Grouping Common Fate  Sets of objects that are moving in the same direction and at the same speed are perceived together (example: marching bands) Connectedness  When they are uniformed and linked, we perceive spots and lines, etc. as a single unit

9. Depth Perception This is our ability to transform two-dimensional retinal images into three dimensional perceptions…  Seeing objects in three dimensions enables us to estimate their distance from us

10. Nativist-Empiricist Debate Nativists (inborn trait) vs. Empiricists (learned trait)  Nativists: Mind doesn’t rely on experience for meaning but innately organizes sensations into perception Depth perception emerges too early in life to have been learned Even adults with limited experience (e.g., handicapped) experience depth  Empiricists: Infants learn depth through feedback from their tactile and motor experiences They associate eye movements with hand and arm movements.

11. Gibson and Walk (1960) These researchers tried to solve this dispute in their “visual cliff” experiment Exp 1: human infants

12. Gibson and Walk (1960) They designed a “visual cliff”, which was actually a glass-top table A checkered pattern was positioned close to the glass under one half of the table (the “shallow” side) and far below the glass under the other half (the “deep” side) Infants between the ages of 6 months and 14 months were placed on the shallow side of the table, and encouraged to crawl over the edge of the visual cliff on to the deep side by being offered toys or having their mothers call them Most failed to respond to these incentives, suggesting that they possessed at least some of the elements of depth perception

14. Gibson and Walk (1960) What do you think was the main criticism of this experiment???

15. Gibson and Walk (1960) Experiment 2:  Day-old goat  Newly hatched chickens Again, as with the human infants they displayed depth perception

16. But… In other studies, new-born chickens are seen pecking at corn that is in fact ten centimeters away until they are forcibly removed, no matter how many times they peck air

17. Bertenthal & Campos (1978) Nine-month-old infants had faster heart rates than normal when placed on the deep side, presumably because they were frightened

18. Held and Hein (1963) Experiment 1:  Kittens raised in darkness until at least six weeks of age They did not retreat from visual cliff

19. Held and Hein (1963) Experiment 2:  Placed two kittens in the 'kitten carousel' a device which let one cat move it while the other followed around but was not in control of the motion  This meant that both cats had the same visual experience  The immobile kittens were unable to blink and didn't stretch out their paws when lowered to the ground  However, when allowed free movement they quickly learned the ability, implying that the perception of depth is learned and related to the motor system

20. So how are we able to develop depth perception? Has to do with the use of certain cues…  Binocular Cues These cues require the use of both eyes  Monocular Cues These cues are available to each eye separately

21. Binocular Cues: The Pencil Tests Binocular (Retinal) Disparity  The difference between the two retinal images of an object (pencil test #1)  Granrud (1987) – felt that this cue appears to develop after three months of age thereby conflicts with Gibson and Walk (1960)

22. Binocular Cues: The Pencil Tests Binocular Convergence  A muscular cue that indicates the extent to which our eyes turn inward when we look at an object (pencil test #2)  Goldstein (1999) – we have basic building blocks of convergence at birth but with maturation of our visual systems these further improve with age

23. Monocular Cues for Perception of Depth and Distance Interposition  Depth cue derived from the overlapping position of objects Relative Size  When object gets larger on the retina we assume they are closer Textural Gradient  This is provided by our proximity to an object Linear Perspective  Cue provided by the convergence of lines towards a single point of the horizon

24. Monocular Cues for Perception of Depth and Distance Motion Parallax  The result of changing positions of an object in space due to the motion of the object Accommodation  Feedback we receive from the muscles in the eye that causes the lens to bulge or get thinner (pencil test #3) Haze  Aerial perspective acts as a depth cue over long distances when we are outside Relative Height  We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away (St. Louis Gateway Arch)

25. Monocular Cues for Perception of Depth and Distance Light  Nearby objects reflect more light in our eyes therefore given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away Shadow  This also produces a sense of depth consistent with the assumed light source

26. Perception of Motion Looming  The rapid expansion of the size of an image so that it fills the retina If this expansion is equal in all directions then its coming right at you – if its more to one side it will miss you Sports Psych – could it be that “expert catchers” unconsciously are able to detect these angles better?

27. Perception of Motion Stroboscopic Motion (phi phenomenon)  Occurs because of our tendency to interpret as continuous as series of still images flashed in succession Videotapes show 30 per second – memory of one is long enough so that we don’t notice any gaps

28. Perceptual Constancies Size Constancy  A nearer object will have a larger retinal image but we don't interpret the object as being larger  Without size constancy people would appear to grow as they walked towards you and shrink as they walk away  Our visual system appears to estimate distance and size together

29. Perceptual Constancies Shape Constancy  Objects viewed from different orientations have different forms but we don't interpret them as different objects  Experience is important determining shape constancies Lightness Constancy  No matter how the amount of light striking an object changes, the object’s perceived brightness does not change

30. Optical Illusions A misinterpretation of a visual stimulus…  When the "real" and the perceived do not match  Illusions mislead us by playing on the ways we organize and interpret our sensations

31. “Visual-capture” phenomenon When there is a conflict between visual and other sensory information, vision seems to dominate or capture the other senses  Examples: When the sound of a movie comes from the projector behind us, we still perceive it as coming from the screen (we “see” the actors talking) Same as we perceive the voice from the ventriloquist's dummy

32. Optical Illusions

33. Which Line Is Longer? A-C on the Left or A-B on the Right?

34. How many faces do you see?

35. Are the horizontal lines parallel or do they slope?

36. Count the black dots...

37. What’s going on here?

38. How many pandas are there in this picture?

39. The Impossible Trident

40. Crossing Circles Illusion

41. Well, we all know how many legs elephants have...

42. Read this...

43. Very strange...

44. Baby In Picture Illusion

45. Expanding Cushion Illusion