1. SPSS Example Demonstrate Descriptives and Explore menu.

2. Analysis of Observational Data Method for analysis depends on –Goal of the study –How data are recorded –Measurement scale Two types of analysis –Qualitative: Usually for narrative Sometimes archival –Quantitative: Usually for selected behaviors

3. Qualitative Data Analysis Qualitative Analysis –Data reduction to summarize comprehensive records Emphasis on verbal summary Organize by grouping data by categories and themes Coding: identify units of behavior using specific criteria –Coding children’s facial expression »Based on smile, frown, ….. –Coding aggressive behavior –Observations of Aggressive and Nonaggressive Children on the School PlaygroundObservations of Aggressive and Nonaggressive Children on the School Playground –Content analysis usually from archival records

4. Qualitative Data Analysis Three Steps of Content Analysis –Content analysis usually from archival records Identify relevant archival source –Choose an archival record that will provide information to answer the research question. Obtain representative sample from source –The goal is to obtain a representative sample –Required for good external validity Code content using descriptive categories –Use precise operational definitions of descriptive categories –Use appropriate units of measure. –Example: Analyze song lyrics for sexual content –“Expressions of love, sex, and hurt in popular songs: a content analysis of all- time greatest hits” Richard L. Dukes (2003) –Sexual & Violent Content Of Music: 1970-2004, Elizabeth Langdon

5. Content Analysis Example Perform a content analysis of the letters to the editor published in the campus newspaper –letters classified in terms of attitude toward the school “favorable” “unfavorable” “neutral” –What procedures should be followed to ensure that the classification of letters is done reliably? –How could the reliability of the classification be measured? –What possible limitations are there in assessing students’ attitudes toward the university solely on the basis of this one archival source? –Identify other possible archival sources that would provide evidence bearing on students’ attitudes toward the university

6. Qualitative Data Analysis Develop a coding scheme –Example: teacher effectiveness –videotape teachers and students –teacher and student behaviors are classified Teacher: use of questions, use of research examples, use of humor, use of anecdotes, soliciting involvement, etc. Students: asking questions, boredom, note-taking, interest level, etc. see Observational Tools for examplesObservational Tools (Note: See how this quickly becomes selected behaviors).

7. Quantitative analysis –used when researchers select particular behaviors to measure. –Using descriptive statistics Classifying events and behaviors into categories to count their frequency of occurrence. Calculating means and standard deviation Assessing reliability of observations –Descriptive statistics depend on measurement scale Nominal: relative frequency Ordinal: rank percentages Interval and ratio: mean, standard deviation

8. TABLE 4.4 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS DESCRIBING THE TIME (IN SECONDS) THAT LISTENERS SPENT LOOKING INTO THE FACE OF A SAME-RACE SPEAKER PER 1-MINUTE OBSERVATION UNIT* Group Mean Standard Deviation Black conversants Male pairs 19.3 6.9 Female pairs 28.4 10.2 Male–female pairs 24.9 11.6 White conversants Male pairs 35.8 8.6 Female pairs 39.9 10.7 Male–female pairs 29.9 11.2 *From LaFrance and Mayo (1976).

9. Quantitative analysis Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency. We need to know whether two or more observers agree (are consistent) in their observations. This is called interobserver reliability. –Example: Suppose you and I observed instructors, and we rated their “teaching effectiveness” on a 1-5 scale with 1 indicating not effective and 5 indicating very effective.

10. Quantitative analysis Interobserver reliability –Measure of agreement between observers Nominal: percent agreement Ordinal: Spearman rank-order correlation Interval and Ratio: Pearson correlation –Factors that affect interobserver reliability Characteristics of the observers Bored, tired, amount of experience Train observers and provide feedback Clearly define events and behaviors to be observed –Provide examples –Clear operational definitions

11. Thinking Critically About Observational Research Influence of the observer: Reactivity –How do individuals know what their behavior should be like in an observational study? Demand Characteristics: Research participants pay attention to the cues and information available in a situation. Controlling Reactivity –Conceal the observer (but be careful about privacy issues). –Use disguised participant observation (privacy issues again). –Use indirect (unobtrusive) observation. –Adapt participants to the presence of the observer Habituation Desensitization –Limit information about study

12. Thinking Critically About Observational Research Ethical issues when controlling reactivity –Privacy and informed consent Observe people without their knowledge –Potential risks Structured observation and field experiments –Risk/benefit ratio” Balance ethical obligation to benefit individuals and society with potential risks of observing people’s behavior contributing to knowledge and understanding of behavior improving the condition of individuals and society. Low risk to participants very favorable risk/benefit ratio.

13. Thinking Critically About Observational Research Observer bias –Observers often have expectations about behavior. Example: expectations based on research hypotheses –Expectations can lead observers to look at only particular behaviors –Observer bias: systematic errors in observation that result from expectations Also called expectancy effects

14. Thinking Critically About Observational Research Observer bias –Potential problem in all research –Hard to eliminate –Observers must always be aware that they may be biased –Reduce bias by keeping observers “blind” to aspects of the study: Reasons for observations Goals of the study Hypotheses