1. NETW3005 File System Interface

2. Reading For this lecture, you should have read Chapter 10 (Sections 1-5) and Chapter 11 (Sections 1-4). NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface2

3. Last Lecture – virtual memory Demand paging Page replacement algorithms Frame allocation Thrashing NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface3

4. This Lecture What’s a file? File access methods Directory structure File system implementation Disk allocation methods NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface4

5. Storage Management: A Recap The last two lectures have been concerned with moving data into and out of main memory. Note: primary memory is only temporary storage. Storage management is also concerned with the issue of storing data on non- volatile devices. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface5

6. Motivation for the File Concept For many purposes, a programmer doesn’t care about what medium data is stored in. All they care about is the data itself, and how to get at it. The issue about how the data is stored can be left to the operating system. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface6

7. Motivation for the File Concept The operating system provides a logical unit of storage for the user, called a file. The user refers to files. The operating system maps files onto regions of secondary storage. Files are really an artifact of the dialogue between the user and the O/S. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface7

8. How should we define a file? What’s the point of having files? –That’s what we’ve just answered. What does a file hold? –A collection of related data, e.g. the sequence of lines in a program, the sequence of words in a text document. Where is the data stored? –Secondary storage. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface8

9. How should we define a file? What’s the point of having files? –That’s what we’ve just answered. What does a file hold? –A collection of related data, e.g. the sequence of lines in a program, the sequence of words in a text document. Where is the data stored? –Secondary storage. (Probably more precise to say ‘not in main memory’.) NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface9

10. How should we define a file? What structure does a file have? –Different files have different structures, e.g. text files are broken into units with line breaks. What can a user do with a file? –Create, write, read, reposition, delete, truncate. (These are all system calls.) NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface10

11. File attributes What information should the OS store about each file in the file system? –File name and type. –Location and size. –Protection. –Housekeeping information. Where is all this information kept? – In a directory. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface11

12. File Operations To carry out an operation on a file, we have to know where it is. To avoid the overhead of searching every time, many systems require that a file is opened before using it. The system maintains an open file table which records the location of the file, and how it is currently being used. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface12

13. Memory-mapped files Opening a memory-mapped file causes a region of a process’s virtual memory to be associated with the file. Reads and writes to the file are implemented as reads and writes to this memory region. Closing the file causes the region of memory to be written back to the disk. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface13

14. File types Since files can store many different types of data, some systems require the type of data in a file to be specified explicitly. Some common file types: –executable programs, –source code and text, –application specific documents, –images, etc. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface14

15. Advantages/disadvantages Advantages. –Knowing the file type limits the choice of which applications can process that file. –Don’t attempt inapplicable operations, e.g. printing out a binary file. Disadvantages. –Hard to deal with new file formats, e.g. encrypted files (which are binary, but not executable). NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface15

16. File structure File types can be used to indicate the internal structure of a file. Any operating system has to know about one file format—executable prog- rams. O/S can usually support a larger set of types. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface16

17. Strategies A minimal strategy, e.g. UNIX. A file is just a sequence of 8-bit bytes. An intermediate strategy, e.g. Mac-OS. A file consists of a resource fork and a data fork. An extreme strategy, e.g. MS Windows. Every file has an associated type embedded in its file name extension. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface17

18. File access methods - Sequential Most common method. A file pointer identifies a record within the file. It can be moved incrementally forwards (in read or write operations) or to the beginning (in rewinding). The hardware metaphor is a tape. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface18

19. File access methods - Direct A file is viewed as a numbered sequence of records. Operations (e.g. read, write) can be carried out on any record in any order. The hardware metaphor is a disk. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface19

20. Organising groups of files Since the number of files in a system can be large, it makes sense to group them in various ways. Normally done in two levels. –The file system is first divided into partitions. A partition can be thought of as a virtual disk. –Each partition contains a directory of files that reside on it. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface20

21. Organising groups of files NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface21 directory partition 1 partition 2 partition 1 disc directory

22. A simple model of user directories As we saw earlier, a directory is a table, relating a file name to its attributes. Simplest method uses a single table. But there are problems: –length and uniqueness of filenames, –multiple users, –searching large directories. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface22

23. Multiple directories One directory per user. Have a master directory, which is a table of user directories. When a user process refers to a file, the operating system searches only the user’s directory. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface23

24. Tree-structured directories It’s an easy extension to allow users to create new directories (aka folders in GUI-speak) in their own directories. To refer to an arbitrary file in the tree- structure, we now need to specify a path from the root of the tree, e.g. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface24

25. /user2/directory1/directory2/file NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface25 / user1 user2 user3 directory1 file directory2 file

26. File access in a directory hierarchy It would be laborious to have to type in the path name for each file. Instead, most systems provide a notion of the current directory as the default one to search. For executable files, some systems allow a user to specify a search path – a list of directories to be searched in order. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface26

27. File access in a directory hierarchy Relative path names can also be used – these are interpreted relative to the current directory. Partitions are often thought of as the first branches in the tree. The syntax for specifying partitions is sometimes the same as for directory names. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface27

28. Directories as graphs One type of data-sharing is to allow two users access to the same file/directory. If we implement this by having two directories point to the same file/directory then the resulting structure is a graph. Such a graph must be acyclic. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface28

29. Shared directories Commonly implemented using links. A link is a pointer to an arbitrary file in the directory structure. In a symbolic link, the pointer is just a pathname. When a directory is searched and a link found, the O/S follows the pointer and uses the file pointed to. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface29

30. Mounting To make a file system available to processes, it must be mounted. The operating system is given the name of the device to be mounted and a directory from which the file system will be accessible, e.g. /user1.) The files in the mounted system will then be available as if they were files in that directory, e.g. /user1/newfile.) NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface30

31. Implementing files: a file system So far, we have been describing the logical structure of the file system, (files, directories, partitions.) The operating system has to map this logical structure onto a storage device (typically, a disk). This is done by the file organisation module. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface31

32. Implementing files: a file system We have already seen how the smallest unit in a disk is a block. The file organisation module has to allocate blocks for the storage of files. A file is broken into logical blocks, to make the mapping to disk blocks easier to manage. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface32

33. Disk allocation methods How should we set aside disk space for the files in a system to occupy? There are several allocation methods. –Contiguous allocation –Linked Allocation –File Allocation Table –Indexed Allocation NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface33

34. Contiguous allocation. Each file occupies a set of contiguous blocks on the disk. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface34

35. Advantages? Sequential access? –Good, because the next character to read is very close. Random access? –Good, because you can just count the number of blocks. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface35

36. Disadvantages? External fragmentation. Notice that compaction is an option; but it needs to be done off-line. Internal fragmentation. Files can grow and shrink. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface36

37. Linked Allocation Each file is a linked list of disk blocks. The directory contains a pointer to the first (and last) blocks of the file. Each block of the file contains a pointer to the next block. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface37

38. Advantages/disadvantages Advantages? –No external fragmentation. –Files can be arbitrarily big; no need to pre- allocate Disadvantages? –Can only be used effectively for sequential files. –Pointers take up some space. –Internal fragmentation. –Reliability. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface38

39. File Allocation Table (FAT) A variant on the linked allocation scheme, used in MS-DOS, OS/2. A table is created at the beginning of each partition, with an entry for each block in the partition. The directory entry for a file specifies the block number for the first block of the file. The value of the FAT entry for the first block will identify the block number of the next block in the file. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface39

40. Advantages/disadvantages Advantages? –Same as linked. In addition, direct access is better supported, because chaining through the FAT is faster than chaining through a linked list. Disadvantages? –Same as linked. Even more head seeks, in fact, unless the FAT is cached. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface40

41. Indexed Allocation Each file has an index block, containing a table specifying the physical block for each logical block. The directory entry for a file contains the address of its index block. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface41

42. Advantages/disadvantages Advantages? –Very easy direct access. –No external fragmentation. Disadvantages? –Wasted space - internal fragmentation, really. –We have to allocate a large array for the index, because we don’t know how big the index needs to be. ALSO lots of head seeks, like linked allocation. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface42

43. Extending a full index block UNIX’s index block (called an inode), combines direct indexing with multilevel indexing. NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface43

44. triple indirect double indirect mode owners timestamp size block count direct blocks single indirect NETW3005 (Operating Systems) Lecture 09 - File Systems Interface44 data

45. Next Lecture I/O Systems Chapter 13 (Sections 1-4, 7)