1. Cognitive Information Processing Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

2. Background Information Processing is not a single theory, but a group of theories that share similar assumptions about learning – Use the computer as a metaphor for learning Input: Information put into the computer – Written information, Problem to be solved, Event Output: The computer’s finished product – Information in long-term memory, behavior, speech, solution to a problem – Mental operations occur between input and output Processing the information Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

3. Background Goal of Information Processing: Explain how the mind manages information – Focus on memory – Memory is comprised of multiple components – Information moves through the components in an organized way Research in the Information Processing paradigm examines the mental processes applied in order to process new information – How information is transformed, manipulated, and used Developmental research in information processing examines how the mental processing changes over time Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

4. Information Processing Model Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

5. Information Processing Model Sensory Memory: Briefly holds information from the sense organs Attention: Consciously focusing on a stimulus Perception: Attaching meaning to a stimulus Working Memory: Store that holds information as a person processes it Long term memory: Permanent information store Metacognition: Awareness of and control over own cognitive processes Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

6. Methodology Processing speed: Amount of time taken to process information – Every step in mental processing takes a certain amount of time – The longer amount of time between input and output, the greater the cognitive activity is taking place – Long reaction times can indicate: More mental activity taking place Slower processing of information Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

7. Methodology Error Analysis: Pattern of correct and incorrect answers determines the rule that is used to solve a problem Microgenetic Method: Many trials of the same type of problem during the period of change to get a detailed account of the change – Example: Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Model Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

8. Developmental Changes in Information Processing Four factors cause developmental changes in information processing – Strategies: Activities that children purposefully utilize to remember information – Knowledge: Background knowledge relevant to the information to be remembered – Metamemory Knowledge about memory – Capacity: Amount of information held in memory Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

9. Strategies Infants have good recognition memory for things of interest – Little strategy necessary Children greatly improve in their memory for things unrelated to the context of interest – Requires considerable memory strategies Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

10. Strategies: Example (Flavell, Beach, & Chinsky, 1996) Children were asked to remember the order in which various objects were pointed to. The child’s eyes were covered during a delay. Trained lip-readers observed for overt verbal rehearsal. – Few 5 year olds, half of the 7 year olds, and most 10 year olds rehearsed – Children who rehearsed recalled more items than those who did not – When directed to rehearse, younger children did and consequently recalled more items Production Deficiency: Young children can use rehearsal strategies but are deficient at when, where, and how to use the strategies effectively Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

11. Strategies What develops: – Ability to know when, how, and where to use strategies – More systematic and organized use of strategies – The ability to pick the strategy that fits a specific task and carry out the strategy spontaneously, quickly, and efficiently (around age 12) – Older primary children can better select relevant material and ignore irrelevant material Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

12. Knowledge Knowledge improves memory recall Structure of knowledge is important – Only increasing factual knowledge does not improve recall – Rich knowledge base may allow children to automatically access items to be recalled because items have a rich network of associations with other items – Increasing knowledge may need to shift the organization of the knowledge before recall improves Children more likely to remember material they know and understand – Older children likely remember more because they understand more Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

13. Knowledge As children’s knowledge of the world improves with experience, recall also improves – Have more places to link new information Rich knowledge base may help choose an appropriate strategy that helps facilitate recall Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

14. Metamemory Subset of metacognition Pre-primary children have a limited knowledge about memory (Flavell, Friedrichs, & Hoyt, 1970) – When asked to predict how many objects can be remembered, young children predict super-human ability – When asked whether to make a phone call immediately upon receiving the number or get drink of water first: 40% pre-primary but 75% of primary 5 said better to phone first – When asked how to recall which Christmas a significant event happened: None of pre-primary but all primary 5 could suggest mentally recalling each Christmas Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

15. Capacity Memory capacity increases as the result of: – Brain maturation – Improved efficiency in using the capacity through practicing cognitive skills Pattern of increases in memory capacity is the same for a variety of tasks – Processing speed is likely the limit of children’s memory capacity Faster processing of information leads to more information being processed Older children use greater working memory capacity to keep more items in short-term memory and invest extra space in better strategies and metamemory activities Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

16. Mechanisms of Development Automatization: Perform a task with little mental attention – Frees capacity for other cognitive activities e.g., constructing a strategy Encoding: Selecting information from a problem and representing the information in long-term memory – Children notice and use different information about the same problem (distance in balance beam) Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

17. Mechanisms of Development Generalization: Apply a strategy to new problems with similar structure Strategy Construction: Insight into a problem and attempting a new approach General cognitive development (increase in knowledge and organization of knowledge) facilitates work of these mechanisms Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

18. Developmental Changes Sensory memory: Children’s sensory memories appear to have the same capacity as adults Attention: Older children are more able to: – Direct their attention to important aspects of the problem – Ignore irrelevant information Perception: Older children have a greater knowledge base that assists in accurately perceiving information Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

19. Developmental Changes Working Memory: Older children: – Keep more information in WM (larger capacity) – Have automatized more tasks so they can focus their attention to other aspects of a problem Long-Term Memory: Older children have a greater knowledge base Metacognition: Older children have more learning strategies Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

20. Comparing Developmental Theories Active/PassiveNature/NurtureStage/Continuous PiagetActiveBothStage Information ProcessingActiveBoth Sociocultural Neo-Piagetians Social Learning Psychosocial Attachment Ecological Systems Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

21. Critique of Information Processing Strengths – Demonstrates the complexity of thought – Makes specific predictions about a child’s behavior from moment to moment – Utilizes rigorous research methods Weaknesses – Focuses more on adult cognitive processing – Ignores the context of thinking – Most memory tasks involve artificial memory tasks (e.g., memorizing a list of unknown words) May not describe real-world memory functioning Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

22. Implications for Education Teach metacognitive study skills – Choosing a good strategy – Self-testing – Planning for study time Task Analysis: Identify cognitive skills necessary for participating in a task – Ensure that students can perform each skill before teaching the more advanced skill Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

23. Revision Describe the four factors that cause changes in information processing as children age. What abilities do children develop as they mature that assist in changes in thinking? In other words, what are the mechanisms of development? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos